Literature Review for VR

 Critical Literature Review of Immersive Virtual Reality Training

There are many studies and articles on how to engage adult learners effectively and ensure retention of learning objectives. This review focuses on one area within those studies, specifically the efficacy of immersive virtual reality (VR) as a training tool. VR training and VR studies have been carried out for decades, and still, there are mixed results about how practical VR training is compared to traditional training mechanisms and techniques. Although there are many facets to explore with VR training, this review focuses on the following areas of VR: a) practice and confidence, b) spatial navigation and perspective, and c) immersiveness. The intent is to determine if VR can effectively help learners develop more resilient long-term memories. The central question posed by this literature review is; "Can VR exercises help employees in the petrochemical and oil refining industries develop more resilient long-term memories?"

Rationale for Review and Statement of Purpose

The petrochemical and oil refinery industries follow strict compliance training demands and safety standards. To work in this field, technicians and operators must pass courses on safety standards, skills training, and compliance standards. Employees within this industry, especially field technicians and field operators, have very high turnover rates compared to other sectors (Lee, n.d.). High turnover rates generally mean that new employees entering the industry must be trained to the same rigorous compliance and safety standards as long-term employees with less experience to help them understand the concepts and process the information. Finding effective training tools that can help learners develop resilient long-term memories efficiently, without overwhelming training demands, is imperative to ensure the safety of new employees in the industry. 

Training augmented with VR exercises has the potential to provide the bridge between the traditional computer-based training (CBT) and hands-on training the industry relies on without the expense and difficulties involved in providing costly hands-on training. VR training provides an opportunity for training on equipment and in environments that would be difficult to access or obtain and dangerous to execute in traditional training scenarios. VR training can also be delivered more effectively to remote areas and can standardize processes to a degree that would difficult for traditional hands-on training. VR also allows for consistency within the training environment by not having different trainers providing different interpretations of the standards. By determining if VR can be a tool to augment traditional CBTs and develop more resilient long-term memory networks, employees in the petrochemical and oil refining industries could have more effective safety, skills, and compliance training before beginning jobs in dangerous work environments. 

There are three things that this review focuses on as they contribute to VR's success as a reinforcement training tool: first, there is the opportunity for practicing a task and the confidence gained through that practice. Secondly, this review will focus on how spatial navigation and perspective within VR can contribute to more resilient memory development. Finally, this review will examine whether or not immersiveness in VR plays a significant part in memory making when using VR as a tool.  

Search Strategy, Selection, and Screening

The search for articles for this review began on or about May 2020 and concluded in April of 2021. The articles for this review were found using several databases provided via the Kansas State University Education Databases and public searches through sites such as Google. Many of the articles were found via the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), Springer, and Taylor and Francis Online. The search terms used included the following:

• Virtual Reality Training

• Virtual Reality in Education

• Virtual Reality and Presence

• Virtual Reality and Vocational Schools

• Virtual Reality and Safety Training 

• Virtual Reality and Immersivness

• Virtual Reality and Embodiment

Several articles found using these searches provided links to other articles that provided more information and insight for this review. Finally, the search was limited to articles written within the last twenty years. A majority of those selected for this review were written after 2010.   Fifty-four articles were found for this review; of those only 29 were used as a part of this analysis. 

Practice and Confidence 

There are two potential benefits to practice. The first is the chance to practice procedures, usually complex processes, in a step-by-step method until they show an ability to perform the steps without the help of a learning aid. Developing psychomotor skills through the use of practice, following Simpson's model for development within the psychomotor domain (Ahmad et al., 2018, p. 2), can allow learners the chance to perform series of movements through procedures and eventually perform complex acts as their own. The second benefit to practice is that this ability to perform complex actions inspires confidence in the learner's skills and adds proficiency (Ahmad et al., 2018, p. 2). The review question regards how VR can help employees develop long-term memory in the petrochemical and oil refining industries. By practicing exercises in a VR environment, learners will follow Simpson's psychomotor domain model, which develops competency and confidence through hands-on practice. 

Figure 1

Screenshot of Excel Learning Journal Chart

 

This review found 12 articles that directly or indirectly addressed and studied whether or not VR provided positive outcomes in terms of memory development for the learner via practice. Of those 12 articles, three articles focused on improved confidence through VR practice opportunities. The most sweeping study in terms of sample size focused on the ability for learners to practice speeches and improve and gain confidence in public speaking through VR exercises. Davis et al. (2019) focused on how VR exercises might help a sample from 195 learners overcome speech phobias in public speaking and randomly selected learners into either a VR study group or a traditional study group. Davis et al. (2019) measured through quantitative means and qualitative questionnaires how participants performed in their respective environments. Although the study found that VR generally provided more positive outcomes, there was not a considerable change in test scores that could prove that VR exercises helped learners become better speakers. In terms of building confidence, however, Davis et al. (2019) reported that "the participants in both the test and control groups agreed that the experience helped them to feel less anxious and more prepared for their actual performance" (p. 79). 

Unlike the article by Davis et al. (2019), where the findings regarding post-test scores after VR training showed no significant improvement, seven articles found improved post-test scores when learners had an opportunity to utilize VR exercises. Two of the most significant of these focused on processes that could be practiced in VR and then performed in real-life environments later. Colombo et al. (2014) focused on identifying improperly closed valves and reporting leaks while learners navigated through a virtual chemical plant, while Barsom et al. (2020) focused on safety training in cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR). The content trained in both of these courses is similar to what learners in the petrochemical and oil refinery field would be asked to navigate as a part of their compliance, safety, and skills training. Both articles showed that learners with the opportunity to practice in a VR environment improved their scores in the post-test measurement. 

Of the ten articles that focus on experiments that directly or indirectly mention confidence and practice, only two found any results that were not positive for using VR for practice. Those included the study by Davis et al. (2019) and a study focused on immersion within head-mounted displays (HMDs) by Harman et al. (2018). In both of these cases, the VR learners did not show a statistically significant difference to the non-VR counterparts. Harman et al. (2008) ascribe some of that difference to the cognitive load placed on the learner during the experiment (p. 12). A second reason for the difference could be that practice improvement results were a secondary focus of the investigation, rather than the primary focus. 

This review found that more often than not the opportunity for learners to practice actions they might make in the real world in a VR environment provided more resilient memory (Ahmad et al. 2018; Allcoat & Mühlenen, 2018; Barsom et al., Colombo et al., 2014; 2020; Hamilton et al., 2020; Harman et al., 2018; Kaminska et al., 2020; Sankaranarayanan et al. 2018; Weber, 2016). This was in most cases confirmed by comparing pre-test and post-test measurements immediately following the delivery of the information. 

Spatial Navigation and Perspective

By asking trainees to act and move in a virtual environment, learners can expect to activate multiple types of neural cells that have been shown to provide more profound, more resilient memories for learners (Eichenbaum, 2017; Krokos et al., 2019; Schiller et al., 2015). Several research articles selected for this review focused on how the human brain process information to store memories and the relationship that the hippocampus has in making those memories. One aspect of these articles to VR is the importance of head direction cells, place cells, and grid cells as part of the memory-making processes (Krokos et al., 2019, p 2). These different mechanisms can help make VR training more effective than traditional CBT learning due in part to their involvement in creating memories using "spatial representations in the brain" (Krokos et al., 2019, p 2). This review focused on articles to determine how deeper, more resilient memories can be made within VR environments and in what way the hippocampus plays a part in developing those memories. This review found 10 articles that had either a primary or secondary focus on spatial awareness and memory-making.

Figure 2

Screenshot of Excel Learning Journal Chart

 

Schiller et al. (2015) explore the role of the hippocampus and how memory is related to navigation, going so far as to posit from the review of research that the hippocampus is intensely involved in spatial mapping and directly related to memory. Burgess et al. (2002) state that "information about the events in our VR episodic memory task is retrieved in the form of an index-like code in the hippocampus, based in part on the location of the subject" (p. 636). Eichenbaum (2017) went so far as to map out different areas of the hippocampus that might be used for different types of memory, primarily focusing on the spatial memory and navigation aspects of memory-making. In Schiller et al. (2015), a similar review of research finds that the hippocampus's role in cataloging and determining how incoming information and memories should be stored shows the importance of activating grid cells, head cells, and boundary cells to making stronger, more resilient memories. The effectiveness of VR is shown through these articles as an effective tool for advancing long-term memory development using spatial cognition and these different brain mechanisms as keystones. Memories are more resilient because they are made up of multiple memory-making cells, such as place cells, grid cells, boundary cells, and head direction cells (Eichenbaum, 2017; Krokos et al., 2019). Many, if not all, of these are activated through the use of VR. Multiple trace memory theory is the idea that a) memories become stronger the more times they are accessed, and b) the more pathways exist between cells that create the memory (Hintzman & Block, 1971, p. 297), the higher the likelihood that the retrieval of that memory will be successful and the memory be a more precise representation of the event. Finding ways to make a more robust, more resilient pathway during memory formation, or forging multiple memory networks via various sensorimotor inputs, is vital in creating more long-lasting memories.

In what way does the hippocampus matter to VR and memory? As Burgess et al. (2002) show in their research article, there is a distinct difference in developing memory depending on whether or not the spatial representation is egocentric or allocentric. This allocentric memory encoding is more closely associated with memory encoding via the hippocampus (Burgess et al., 2002, p. 628). In contrast, other types, including egocentric memory development, are associated with the parietal neocortex (Burgess et al., 2002, p. 626), supported by the cognitive mapping theory. VR can support these types of memory-making capabilities, be they allocentric, meaning: centered on or from other objects in the area, or egocentric, meaning: trunk centered (Burgess et al., 2002, p. 626), which can make VR a more capable memory development tool for learning. 

Finally, memory palaces (method of loci), as defined in Krokos et al. (2019), is the idea of the brain spatially organizing information for later retrieval based on navigating imaginary structures to aid recall (p. 1). Krokos et al. (2019) designed an experiment to allow others to act on their findings and compared results through a quantitative test of images provided to the 40 learners on two-dimensional desktop monitors verse three-dimensional immersive head-mounted displays (HMD). These three-dimensional immersive HMDs helped to create "memory palaces" which allow the learner the chance to associate images to a place that can aid later recall. 

Tuena et al. (2019) bring all of the above information together into a holistic understanding in a systematic review to discuss how episodic memory, as well as allocentric and egocentric memory, are all processed in the hippocampus and linked together in a process known as "binding" (p. 2). Binding connects the embodied memory to the cognitive memory for later retrieval (Tuena et al., 2019, p. 2). Over the course of working through 647 articles, Tuena et al. (2019) determined that there are "positive results concerning the virtual enactment effect on spatial and episodic memory performance, highlighting the embodied potential of virtual reality (VR)" (p. 17). 

Utilizing more neural cells such as grid cells, place cells, head direction cells, and boundary cells, as well as mechanisms such as binding, combined with allowing learners the opportunity to view information with an allocentric perspective would allow for stronger memory development (Burgess et al., 2002; Tuena et al., 2019; Eichenbaum, 2017; Krokos et al., 2019). VR provides the opportunity for learners to utilize all of these mechanisms in their training. 

Immersiveness

Immersiveness is the feeling of being present or having presence in an online or virtual environment (Burgess et al., 2002, p. 627). This review looked for articles that focused either primarily or secondarily on immersiveness and presence as a feature of VR technology and how having a greater degree of immersiveness can contribute to more resilient long-term memories. Studies have shown that the practice of procedural tasks or processes in VR provided greater, more resilient memories than those that used non-immersive VR for training, as shown in the literature review by Hamilton et al. (2020, p. 25). As Lecavalier et al. (2018) write, "numerous studies have found that presence is positively related to performance" (p. 464). 

Figure 3

Screenshot of Excel Learning Journal Chart

 

This review found several articles that found positive results for the argument of having more immersive environments and a greater sense of presence within the VR exercise to create more resilient memory. Among the 14 research papers that dealt with immersiveness and presence, 13 were experiments to determine if immersiveness was effective as a part of a VR learning tool. Among the 13 experiments, five dealt specifically with an experiment that compared two-dimensional tools such as video or PowerPoint slides with three-dimensional VR conditions. In four of these cases, the three-dimensional VR condition provided greater recall than the two-dimensional training (Barsom et al. 2020; Colombo et al.; 2014, Krokos 2019; Lecavalier et al., 2018). In one experiment that compared three-dimensional VR to PowerPoint training, there was no significant difference between the two conditions immediately after training, but once the learner was given the opportunity to write a summary of their training, the three-dimensional VR group scored significantly higher scores than the two-dimensional condition (Parong & Mayer, 2018). For most of the experiments reviewed as a part of this study, the data show that immersive environments in VR provide a more significant opportunity for learning than a two-dimensional condition. 

Another feature of immersiveness and presence is the importance of embodiment to the VR condition. An experiment performed by and reported on by Brechet et al. (2019) discussed how embodiment is key to making long-lasting memories. In their study, Brechet et al. (2019) discover that learners, when provided the opportunity to interact with an immersive three-dimensional virtual environment, remembered in the long-term, or delayed retrieval test, more information than those learners who had no representation of their body or who had a representation of the joystick control in their field of view (p. 13). Although this study might have findings relevant to the positive argument of "embodiment" in virtual reality, it also is relevant to the idea that egocentric and allocentric memory encoding in VR is more effective for long-term memory retrieval. 

Of the 15 articles that had a primary or secondary focus on immersiveness in VR, the most noteworthy were those dealing with safety training procedures or working with adults. Both of these aspects are factors that are prevalent as a part of the review question. The study by Lecavalier et al. (2018) meets all of these characteristics. Lecavalier et al. (2018) focused on 57 older adults and their ability to recall episodic memories in a VR setting and resulted in data that showed that using VR exercises for older adults showed the same promise as using it for younger populations and that other factors such as cybersickness concerns and motivation were not insurmountable for the population (p. 474).

VR provides the opportunity to create immersive environments for learners. Most of the articles that experimented with immersiveness as a primary or secondary focus found that immersiveness or presence in a VR exercise provided more resilient memories in the post-test measurement than two-dimensional training methodologies (Baily et al., 2012; Colombo et al., 2014; Krokos et al., 2019; Lecavalier et al., 2018; Krokos; Sankaranarayanan et al., 2018; Weber, 2016; Yildirim et al., 2018). 

Limitations

There are some limitations of this critical review and the ability to answer the review question. Two of the articles reviewed for this paper discuss the use of VR to change cultural norms. Bailey et al. (2012) investigate the use of VR to change water use habits, while Lau (2015) experiments with how best to teach an organization's culture to new employees during onboarding. In both of these cases, VR proved to be a poor catalyst for changing habits and the learner's culture. Additionally, only two studies focused on an audience type similar to those found in field or operator work within the petrochemical or oil refining industry. Both Colombo et al. (2014) and Kamińska et al. (2020) focused on mechanical aspects of work in and around refineries and/or with a learning cohort similar to field technicians and operators. Both found that VR provided training advantages for the learners. Finally, the review question mentions the ability of field technicians and operators to develop long-term memories. Only one article in this review had a measurement tool that extended beyond one day. Schöne et al. (2017) used a delayed retrieval measurement of 48 hours as a part of a recall experiment which provided evidence that VR training became a deeper memory than conventional video training (p. 715). Schöne et al. (2017) was not an article selected for this review as it did not specifically address any of the areas, immersiveness, practice, nor spatial navigation as thoroughly as many of the articles that were selected. Most of the articles found for this review focused on the immediate impact of VR on learning. The lack of study into long-term retention following VR training, combined with the limited number of experiments performed on learners similar to those found in the petrochemical and oil refining industries, could mean that the positive results found in this review might not translate to those industries. Additionally, the limited data found on changing culture could indicate that improving safety culture through VR is not a worthwhile undertaking. 

Conclusion

The data in the articles that were selected for this review show that VR, as compared to traditional two-dimensional training, has benefited learners in terms of recall. The review question focuses not only on immediate recall but also on long-term recall and retention. As mentioned in the Limitations section above, only one article measured retention beyond a few hours (Schöne et al., 2017). Finding articles and research that find ways to measure the long-term recall and retention of information presented via VR should be the next goal in this study. As shown by the articles in this review, the fact that VR stimulates so many brain mechanisms like spatial awareness, allocentric perspectives, grid cells, place cells, head direction cells, and boundary cells should all help to create more resilient and, therefore long-term memories. Still, the studies that prove this long-term memory development via VR were not found as a part of this review. 

References

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Allcoat, D., & Mühlenen, A. von. (2018). Learning in virtual reality: Effects on performance, emotion and engagement. Research in Learning Technology, 26. https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v26.2140

Ausburn, L. J., & Ausburn, F. B. (2004). Desktop virtual reality: A powerful new technology for teaching and research in industrial teacher education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 41(4).

Ausburn, L. J., & Ausburn, F. B. (2008). Effects of desktop virtual reality on learner performance and confidence in environment mastery: Opening a line of inquiry. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 45(1), 54–87.

Bird, C. M., & Burgess, N. (2008). The hippocampus and memory: Insights from spatial processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(3), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2335

Bréchet, L., Mange, R., Herbelin, B., Theillaud, Q., Gauthier, B., Serino, A., & Blanke, O. (2019). First-person view of one's body in immersive virtual reality: Influence on episodic memory. PLOS ONE, 14(3). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197763

Catterson, A. J. (2013). The impact of virtual reality programs in career and technical education. [Doctoral dissertation, Capella University]. ProQuest. http://search.proquest.com/eric/docview/1697499111/DCC97B3909C241F4PQ/4

Colombo, S., Nazir, S., & Manca, D. (2014). Immersive virtual reality for training and decision making: Preliminary results of experiments performed with a plant simulator. SPE Economics & Management, 6(04), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.2118/164993-PA

Dede, C. (2009). Introduction to virtual reality in education. Themes in Science and Technology Education, 2, 7–9.

Auld, L.W.S., Pantelidis, V.S. (1994). Exploring virtual reality for classroom use. TechTrends : For Leaders in Education & Training., 39(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02763872

Flanders, M., & Kavanagh, R. C. (2013). Visualizing compound rotations with virtual reality. The Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 77(3). http://www.edgj.org/index.php/EDGJ/issue/view/59

Gavish, N., Gutiérrez, T., Webel, S., Rodríguez, J., Peveri, M., Bockholt, U., & Tecchia, F. (2015). Evaluating virtual reality and augmented reality training for industrial maintenance and assembly tasks. Interactive Learning Environments, 23(6), 778–798. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2013.815221

Granic, A., Nakic, J., & Marangunic, N. (2020). Scenario-Based group usability testing as a mixed methods approach to the evaluation of three-dimensional virtual learning environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 58(3), 616–639. 

Hamilton, D., McKechnie, J., Edgerton, E., & Wilson, C. (2021). Immersive virtual reality as a pedagogical tool in education: A systematic literature review of quantitative learning outcomes and experimental design. Journal of Computers in Education, 8(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-020-00169-2

Harman, J., Brown, R., & Johnson, D. (2017). Improved memory elicitation in virtual reality: new experimental results and insights. [Conference Session]16th IFIP Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (INTERACT), Sep 2017, Bombay, India. pp.128-146. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67684-5_9

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Jensen, C. G. (2017). Collaboration and dialogue in virtual reality. Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education, 5(1), 85–110.

Jensen, L., & Konradsen, F. (2018). A review of the use of virtual reality head-mounted displays in education and training. Education and Information Technologies, 23(4), 1515–1529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9676-0

Kamińska, D., Zwoliński, G., Wiak, S., Petkovska, L., Cvetkovski, G., Barba, P. D., Mognaschi, M. E., Haamer, R. E., & Anbarjafari, G. (2020). Virtual reality-based training: Case study in mechatronics. Technology, Knowledge and Learning. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-020-09469-z

Krokos, E., Plaisant, C., & Varshney, A. (2019). Virtual memory palaces: Immersion aids recall. Virtual Reality, 23(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-018-0346-3

Lau, K. W. (2015). Organizational learning goes virtual? A study of employees' learning achievement in stereoscopic 3D virtual reality. The Learning Organization, 22(5), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1108/TLO-11-2014-0063

Lecavalier, N. C., Ouellet, É., Boller, B., & Belleville, S. (2020). Use of immersive virtual reality to assess episodic memory: A validation study in older adults. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 30(3), 462–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2018.1477684

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Tuena, C., Serino, S., Dutriaux, L., Riva, G., & Piolino, P. (2019). Virtual enactment effect on memory in young and aged populations: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(5), 620.

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Leading Virtual vs Real-World Teams

Comparing Chapters 8, and 13, how do virtual teams differ from temporally separated teams and how are they similar?

I really enjoyed parts of the essay by Cohen and Alonso (2013) and how they discussed leading virtual teams. With the ubiquotousness of virtual meeting capabilities within our business world and the need for a greater understanding of how to fully utilize the tools and capabilities to work as well away from the office as we do in the office, I thought the messages were timely and provided some good guidance. 

I found myself relating to a lot of what they advise, if only because there are times when I find myself leading virtual teams as well as on-site teams, and both need to be as effective as possible in completing projects and being productive. I especially liked the table presented that provided tips for overcoming process challenge to virtual teamwork (Cohen and Alonso, 2013, p. 260). I do not have as much experience leading temporally separated teams. The closest I've come is a few hours time differences, usually, Texas compared to California. Still, there are aspects of that team leadership that I had to be cognizant of and take into consideration, much like Espinosa (2013) discusses in his chapter. However, I thought one oversight that was not discussed as much as was needed to be was the aspect of cultural difference in temporally separated teams.

Espinosa (2013) discusses not just temporatlly separated teams but also teams separated by distannce but within the same time zones. Espinosa (2013) writes "spatial distance does not necessarily change the pattern of team interaction," (p. 420) which is true but does not necessarily cover what I feel is a predominant issue of cultural differences. My wife, working as a software project manager has had to lead offsite teams in Honduras and in India. The Honduran team was in the same time zone as she and the team and India was a twelve-hour difference. In both cases, she has had more challenges with cultural differences, those regarding the speed of work product, expectations, and role of females in business and society, than mere time differences caused. Then I look at my time in the military, when we were spread out as a battalion over different continents, the fact that we were all from the same unit, that we understood the expectations, the mission, and had a similar language and standards, all benefitted us despite a time difference. 

At no point does Espinosa (2013) nor Cohen and Alonso focus enough time and effort on the problems that cultural differences cause but focus instead on just the aspects of physical difference. The physical difference is a challenge to be sure, but the cultural differences can serve to make virtual team-leading several degrees harder if they aren't understood and addressed from the very beginning. 

References

Cohen, D. J., and Alonso, A. (2013). Virtual teams; The how to's of making "being virtually there" successful. In E. Salas, G. Latham, D. J. Cohen, & S. I. Tannenbaum (Eds.), Developing and enhancing teamwork in organizations: Evidence-based best practices and Guidelines (pp. 239–267). essay, Jossey-Bass.

Espinosa, J.A. (2013). High performance in temporally separated team work. In E. Salas, G. Latham, D. J. Cohen, & S. I. Tannenbaum (Eds.), Developing and enhancing teamwork in organizations: Evidence-based best practices and Guidelines (pp. 406 - 438). essay, Jossey-Bass.

Innovation in Virtual Classrooms

Like Jason, and Nicole from my class, I find the last couple of years to be incredibly interesting in terms of remote leadership and management. I look forward to seeing the world and the business culture adapt. 

We've seen lots of organizations embrace remote work, but now that there is a contraction and we see people coming back to the offices, I wonder if those who have excelled and do well in remote environments won't be missing out on aspects of the face-to-face business world. I like the way you described your situation, especially in terms of how to organize work to ensure that you get the most out of time together. 

I was talking today to a remote workgroup/committee that I work with and we were discussing getting together in person to move further along in our work. We all agreed that we could get more out of a live face-to-face meeting than a remote one, but then when we started organizing and discussing the opportunity to meet again, we discussed how important it would be to have pre-work assigned and completed before meeting up in order to get the most out of the live face-to-face meeting. 

The same could have been said about our remote work. I guess my point is that the same things that are successful in one arena might be as successful in the other. Additionally, I don't think we should settle on a binary choice. I find a mixture is worthwhile. Being face-to-face has advantages, but remote work has other advantages. 

What I have found interesting is the evolution of virtual teams over time. As I mentioned above, I set up a virtual training network with about 50 sites back in 2012 and I was working virtually for many years. Not 100% but as needed. Then when Covid hit, our organization found we had to go from as needed to immediate necessity. 

For me the change was not stark. For my team members, it was a new experience. I've found, having worked virtually for many years that there are aspects of virtual work well, and those that don't. I use virtual work now strategically. 

If traffic is too thick to get to work easily, I take the meetings virtually until traffic dies down and I can get into the office easier. If I have a lot of work to do on specific projects, writing scripts, reviewing courses, etc. I take it home to work it out in the home office and any questions I have that day I utilize zoom, phone and chat. 

If I have a lot of team building or departmental trust building to do, I go into the office. I have a unique situation though where there is an option, but I think the best way to use virtual work is to mix it with real-world meetings, but sympathize with those who don't have the option and must find ways to make virtual work in all situations. 

Improving Learner Self-Efficacy Through Virtual Reality

Virtual Reality (VR) is quickly gaining momentum as a possible tool for safety training and skills training in the energy sector at the Health and Safety Council (HASC). As a non-profit contractor training organization, HASC has been studying ways to integrate VR training into its delivery models in ways that help provide more effective learning outcomes for the learner. 

To determine if VR is effective as a training tool for the contractors and trainees who come to HASC for safety or skills training and whether VR is effective compared to traditional eLearning or Computer Based Training (CBT) tools, HASC has completed several investigations. HASC's studies have shown that VR effectively creates lasting, retrievable memories for HASC's trainees (Health and Safety Council, 2020). In addition, being exposed to theories, learning procedures, and understanding information are aspects that CBT at HASC can benefit their learners. VR offers the opportunity to practice and try the procedures in an immersive, virtual world. However, finding ways to improve worker self-efficacy could have deeper, more meaningful effects on the learner and their teams. 

Stop-Work Authority

The understanding and use of personal stop work authority is ubiquitous and fundamental to safe work activities in the energy sector (Gaddis, 2019; Mlynek, 2021). Providing training that helps learners, particularly newer workers, understand stop-work authority and how to use it effectively and promptly. The proper use of stop-work authority by workers can also create a safer work environment for all workers on the job site. Stop work authority is a safety policy designed to keep workers personally safe and allow them to stop any work they may see that is unsafe. According to Gaddis (2019), "the goal behind such a plan is to encourage workers to speak up without fear of retribution when they see a potential at-risk situation unfolding" (p. 2). When used correctly, stop work authority is a powerful tool for keeping workers safe. When it is not used, it can place employees, worksites, and communities surrounding energy manufacturing facilities at risk of dangerous releases, explosions, or fires. 

In many cases, new workers are hesitant to use their stop-work authority due to factors such as diffusion of responsibility; or a "situation in which a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction, when other workers are present" (Mlynek, 2021, p. 1). Counting on others rather than being assured of your own knowledge, training, and capabilities could lead to injury or fatality for the field workers and contracting organizations' that HASC supports. 

Another issue with new employees feeling empowered to use their authority to stop work is the bystander effect. According to Furst (2015), the bystander effect "occurs when the presence of others hinders an individual from intervening in a situation that may cause injury to others or the environment" (p. 5). Like the diffusion of responsibility, the bystander effect can affect new employees inserted into work teams with other, more experienced workers. Being the newest employee can influence a greater chance for the bystander effect to occur. Even if they see something dangerous, new employees might be less apt to stop work because they believe another, more experienced member would stop the hazardous act if it were dangerous. Conversely, experienced workers can get complacent and bad habits can cause them to miss procedural steps. When newer employees rely on these experienced workers due to the bystander effect, stop-work authority will not be used effectively. 

Self-Efficacy

For HASC learners, self-efficacy can be described as a learner's belief in the abilities and capabilities for a task or procedure and their perceptions of themselves in society (Bandura, 1977). Having higher regard for their capabilities and understanding can lead to greater self-efficacy and a greater sense of independent agency, the chance to make independent changes. As Lindley (2006) points out, Bandura believes that "self-efficacy is closely linked to individual human agency" (p. 144). These have positive benefits as providing learners with greater self-efficacy and agency will be more confident in their decisions. In terms of stop-work authority, having the confidence to speak up and stop a job, especially as a newer technician, is a hard challenge. Having greater agency, self-efficacy, and confidence can help newer workers potentially overcome those challenges sooner in their career development. 

Citing several sources, Artisco et al. state in Hoare (2011) that self-efficacy and self-worth are linked to one's abilities. Citing Ehrlinger and Dunning, Artistico, Berry, Black, Cervone, Lee and Orom write that "the knowledge that one is succeeding or failing at a task has substantial implication for ongoing and future actions related to task performance and sense of mastery” (Hoare, 2011, p. 217). Developing skills and feeling that they can meet future challenges successfully is the essence of self-efficacy and can impact learners' future success. 

Virtual Reality and Self-Efficacy

Many studies show how VR training can improve worker self-efficacy for industrial workers (Colombo, 2014; Makransky & Klingenberg, 2022). These studies have shown that workers who took VR training were more apt to identify and fix problems they found on the worksite and showed higher levels of motivation and behavioral changes. Bandura (1977) suggests that self-efficacy comes from four primary sources; of those four, two are: (a) personal performance and accomplishments, (b) vicarious experiences. The VR exercises that HASC provides allows learners to perform procedures in a safe and controlled environment. Learners have the opportunity to perform procedures and experience the results of that work in an immersive environment. 

An immersive VR environment also allows learners to practice these procedures in significantly more dangerous situations than what could be provided in live training simulators. Holbrook and Cennamon (2014), citing several studies, write that one beneficial aspect of simulators is that "they provide a safe environment in which to learn and fail" (p. 40). Their study on emotion and self-efficacy in simulators for police officers found that learners in an immersive learning environment were: (a) more emotionally invested, (b) found the training situations realistic, and (c) found the learning memorable and realistic. In a similar study, Nissim and Weissblueth (2017) found that when providing VR simulator training to teachers,  the participants' self-efficacy or belief in their ability improved following the simulator training. Additionally, Shu et al. (2017) found that learner motivation and enjoyment of the training course improved when using high definition immersive VR as the tool for delivery. 

Career Development

A greater sense of self-efficacy can also have positive benefits for the learner's career and the learner's fulfillment from their career. Bandura (1997) writes that the "stronger the sense of self-regulatory efficacy, the greater the improvement in work involvement" (p. 189). This can not only lead to greater worker involvement but can have positive benefits to the worker in the form of being more involved to use stop-work authority more effectively. Additionally, this willingness to "own" their own and others' safety at the job site can lead to quicker career growth and promotion. Holbrook and Cennamo (2014) write about how individuals with "high perceived self-efficacy about a certain task can lead to positive performance outcomes" (p. 38). And Bandura (1997) writes that "individuals who have a resilient sense of self-efficacy perceive greater employment opportunities and are more successful in finding employment" (p. 188). Finally, Bandura (1986) quotes Brown and Inouye that "when people are fully assured of their capabilities, they remain unshaken in their perceived self-efficacy and persevere doggedly, even though they fail repeatedly" (p. 364).

Multiple studies show that self-efficacy can be improved for students through the use of VR exercises (Colombo et al, 2014; Holbrook & Cennamo, 2014; Makransky & Klingenberg, 2022; Nissim & Weissblueth, 2017). Improved self-efficacy, or a greater sense of self-efficacy in a shorter time can help field workers supporting the energy sector perform their work more safely and speak up quicker and use their stop work authority when they see something dangerous (Burke, et al., 2006; Furst, 2015; Gaddis, 2019; Mlynek, 2021). For an organization like HASC that is looking for ways to improve contractor safety in the energy sector, finding training techniques that can help learners quickly gain a sense of self-efficacy, VR could be a worthwhile investment. 

References

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191\

Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(3), 359–373. https://doi-org.er.lib.k-state.edu/10.1521/jscp.1986.4.3.359

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W H Freeman/Times Books/ Henry Holt & Co.

Burke, M. J., Sarpy, S. A., Smith-Crowe, K., Chan-Serafin, S., Salvador, R. O., & Islam, G. (2006). Relative effectiveness of worker safety and health training methods. American Journal of Public Health, 96(2), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.059840

Colombo, S., Nazir, S., & Manca, D. (2014). Immersive virtual reality for training and decision making: Preliminary results of experiments performed with a plant simulator. SPE Economics & Management, 6(04), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.2118/164993-pa

Furst, P. G. (2015). Stop work authority and the bystander effect. IRMI. Retrieved April 22, 2022, from https://www.irmi.com/articles/expert-commentary/stop-work-authority-and-the-bystander-effect

Gaddis, S. (2019). Stop work authority: A principled-based approach. Occupational Health & Safety. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://ohsonline.com/Articles/2019/12/02/Stop-Work-Authority-A-Principled-Based-Approach.aspx

Health and Safety Council. (2020). Gauging Effectiveness of 3D VR for Memory Retrieval. Retrieved October 10, 2021, from https://hasc.com/uploads/digital/VR/HASC-VR-in-Industry-White-Paper.pdf

Hoare, C. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Reciprocal Adult Development and Learning. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978-0199736300

Holbrook, H. A., & Cennamo, K. S. (2014). Effects of high-fidelity virtual training simulators on learners' self-efficacy. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 6(2), 38–52. https://doi-org.er.lib.k-state.edu/10.4018/ijgcms.2014040104

Lindley, L. D. (2006). The paradox of self-efficacy: Research with diverse populations. Journal of Career Assessment, 14(1), 143–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072705281371

Makransky, G., & Klingenberg, S. (2022). Virtual reality enhances safety training in the maritime industry: An organizational training experiment with a non-WEIRD sample. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 1– 14. https://doi-org.er.lib.k-state.edu/10.1111/jcal.12670

Mlynek, J. (2021). Stop-Work Authority: Empower Employees to Watch For Hazardous Situations, Take Action. Grain Journal. Retrieved April 20, 2022, frhttps://www.grainnetsafety.com/article/243934/joe-mlynek-stop-work-authority-empower-employees-to-watch-for-hazardous-situations-take-action

Nissim, Y., & Weissblueth, E. (2017). Virtual reality (VR) as a source for self-efficacy in teacher training. International Education Studies, 10(8), 52. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v10n8p52

Shu, Y., Huang, YZ., Chang, SH. et al. Do virtual reality head-mounted displays make a difference? A comparison of presence and self-efficacy between head-mounted displays and desktop computer-facilitated virtual environments. Virtual Reality 23, 437–446 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-018-0376-x

Research Purpose, Questions, & Rationale for Virtual Reality and Emotion Exercises

The Health and Safety Council (HASC) is a non-profit contractor association that trains contractors in safety and skills tasks needed for working in petrochemical and oil refining facilities. 

Due to the large number of contractors who work on these sites, the most cost-effective and efficient method of providing this training has been computer-based training (CBT). 

HASC is researching the effectiveness of virtual reality (VR) as a tool to augment these CBTs to make CBTs more effective since finding more effective, engaging ways to utilize CBT training falls within HASC's mission (Health and Safety Council, 2006). As a part of this innovation, HASC is working to make the VR training more effective though the use of emotional videos.

In 2020, HASC developed a CBT that included VR exercises and studied the efficacy of VR exercises by comparing tests between a control group and an experimental group. The control group was provided a standard CBT with knowledge checks and tests. The experimental group had the same content as the control group but was allowed to take VR exercises to reinforce learning objectives. The analysis of this 2020 study showed that CBT courses augmented with VR exercises provided more resilient long-term memory formation than those without VR exercises (Health and Safety Council, 2020). 

HASC has released another CBT course with VR exercises that includes job-relevant videos with an emotionally compelling storyline. These are taken in the fully immersive VR headset along with the exercises. The intent of this new CBT is to determine what effects VR exercises with emotionally compelling videos might have on learners' understanding of the training concepts and the gravity of the procedures the training covers. Other studies such as Tyng et al. (2017) and Diemer et al. (2015), have found links between emotion and long-term memory formation and HASC intends to provide greater learner long-term memory formation using emotion as well as VR.

Rationale for the Study

HASC has developed a CBT course with VR exercises with emotionally compelling videos to try and increase long-term memory retention for the learners who take the course. This has been demonstrated in other studies where emotions are elicited via video and VR exercises (Marín-Morales et al., 2018, and Diemer et al., 2015). HASC hopes that videos showing interviews with affected family members and friends will create a sympathetic, emotionally resonant episode for learners that will increase the chances of retaining and recalling information later. When considering memories of our past, Holland and Kensinger (2010) write that "the past we recall often consists primarily of moments imbued with emotions" (p. 7). Additionally, Holland and Kensinger (2010) note that experiences that are more relevant and personal will likely be remembered more than those that have less relevance.

HASC deliberately excluded any analytical video analysis or emotions that might be perceived as negative when developing these videos. As Knorzer et al. (2016) write, more positive emotions in learning are a facilitator of knowledge and help learners enhance memory. In their investigation of Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Media (CATLM), they researched whether positive emotions before learning increased memory and instead found that although "learner's emotional state had a crucial impact on learning outcomes: Learners with a negative emotional state before learning outperformed learners with a positive emotional state" (Knorzer et al., 2016, p. 627). Therefore, rather than focusing on positive or negative emotional states per se, HASC's study will focus on feelings such as empathy, compassion, sympathy, and pity. Also, unlike the Knorzer et al. (2016) analysis, the emotionally resonant videos are played after the VR exercises and summarize the procedure rather than being shown before the learning. Another rationale for providing memories that are sympathetic rather than negative comes from a study on emotional memory and event memory by Kuriyama et al. (2010). The authors found through their study that in terms of episodic memory, "the more fearsome the event, the more likely it is to be inaccurately recognized" (p. 133) despite findings in other studies that seem to show event memory being strong when strong emotions are present, especially fear. 

Unlike Knorzer et al. (2016), Zlomuzica et al. (2016) found that through their experiments on providing emotional resonance through short videos and their effect on episodic memory, the impact of positive and anxious emotional states had no change on episodic memory retention. Zlomuzica et al. (2016) found "an inverse correlation between the level of negative arousal and performance scores in memory for spatial context" (p. 185). The final results from Zlomuzica et al. (2016) found that emotional arousal of the test subject before the learning had a more negligible effect on episodic memory but may "hamper the memory for the event-location association." As stated previously, unlike Zlomuzica et al. (2016), HASC hopes to stimulate emotional arousal after the learning and the training, rather than prior. 

Knorzer et al. (2015) also conducted experiments regarding prior knowledge and how prior knowledge might affect cognitive load and memory. Learner's "with high working memory capacity perceive complex learning materials as less difficult and can compensate additionally imposed (extraneous) cognitive load" (Knorzer et al., 2015, p. 620), and a "higher working memory capacity has also been found to be a significant predictor for learning success in multimedia learning" (Knorzer et al., 2015, p. 620). 

Many of the studies have been conducted using subjects who are not a part of the industrial field workforce that HASC supports. HASC works with field workers, leaders, and contractors who work around hazards on a daily basis that could cause serious injury to themselves, their colleagues, or environmental hazards for the communities (Oil and gas extraction - hazards, n.d.). Although there are several studies on industrial workers and VR training efficacy (Gavish et al., 2015 and Vasilevski & Birt, 2020 and Colombo et al., 2014), there is a gap in the research of how VR and training that elicits emotion can encourage these workers to perform their work more safely. 

Research Purpose

The purpose of this research is to determine how emotionally compelling videos affect the learner's understanding of the concepts of the CBT VR training. There is evidence from HASC's 2020 VR study (Health and Safety Council, 2020) that there is an increase in long-term memory formation when VR exercises are added to traditional CBT. There is little research that combines emotion, VR, and micro-learning exercises of this kind for the contracting community that HASC supports. The videos that have been created as a part of this experiment show learners an interview with family members of industrial workers who were critically injured or killed in real-world accidents using the same procedures as those the learners are trained on in the CBT course. As stated in other studies like Knorzer et al. (2015) and Zlomuzica et al. (2016), there is a link between creating resilient episodic memory and the learner's emotional state. Since the videos are directly relevant to the work procedures in the training course, there should be direct relevance for the learner, which like Holland and Kensinger (2010) find, provides for more resilient memory formation for the learner. Additionally, many HASC learners are contractors who have taken multiple courses at the council over many years. In many cases, these are redundant training courses and they reinforce classes that the contractor learner may have taken many times. As Knorzer et al. (2015) found regarding prior knowledge affecting cognitive load and memory, this prior knowledge should lead to greater long-term memory development as learners will be less overly taxed. Finally, since there is a relationship between positive and negative emotions on learner memory, rather than focusing on positive or negative emotional states, HASC will focus on feelings such as empathy, compassion, sympathy, and pity to arouse emotion in the learner.

Research Questions

The research questions HASC hopes to answer include:

• How do the learners who take the CBT courses with VR exercises describe the training course and concepts within them?

• What impact do the learners believe the VR and videos will have on their desire to follow procedures outlined in the course when they are in the field?

• How do the learners discuss the impact of the VR and videos compared to other training they have taken?

Definition of Key Terms/Constructs

CBT The acronym for Computer Based Training, the generic delivery process of providing training through a computer terminal. 

Contractor Workers, primarily field workers, who work on behalf of refinery and petrochemical facility owners. The predominant learning audience at HASC.

Episodic Memory A part of declarative memory that is focused on the specific, unique events around personal experiences (Schöne et al., 2019). 

HASC The common name/acronym for the Health and Safety Council. A non-profit operating in Pasadena, Texas since 1990 that trains contractors primarily within the petrochemical and oil and refinery industry to provide safety and skills training. 

Long-Term Memory Learning or recollection of events that are stored over an extended period of time. 

VR The acronym for Virtual Reality, 3D, immersive technology that provides interactive simulations for the learner.

 

References

Colombo, S., Nazir, S., & Manca, D. (2014). Immersive virtual reality for training and decision making: Preliminary results of experiments performed with a plant simulator. SPE Economics & Management, 6(04), 165–172.

Diemer, J., Alpers, G. W., Peperkorn, H. M., Shiban, Y., & Mühlberger, A. (2015). The impact of perception and presence on emotional reactions: a review of research in virtual reality. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 26.

Gavish, N., Gutiérrez, T., Webel, S., Rodríguez, J., Peveri, M., Bockholt, U., & Tecchia, F. (2015). Evaluating virtual reality and augmented reality training for industrial maintenance and assembly tasks. Interactive Learning Environments, 23(6), 778–798.

Health and Safety Council. (2006). Vision and Mission Statements. https://www.hasc.com/about-hasc/vision-mission/

Health and Safety Council. (2020). Gauging Effectiveness of 3D VR for Memory Retrieval. Retrieved October 10, 2021, from https://drive.google.com/file/d/1jvogEWVVL7BLQSZ08bab9S1RGS-llAwN/view?usp=sharing

Holland, A. C., & Kensinger, E. A. (2010). Emotion and autobiographical memory. Physics of Life Reviews, 7(1), 88–131.

Knörzer, L., Brünken, R., & Park, B. (2016). Emotions and multimedia learning: the moderating role of learner characteristics: Emotions in multimedia learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(6), 618–631.

Kuriyama, K., Soshi, T., Fujii, T., & Kim, Y. (2010). Emotional memory persists longer than event memory. Learning & Memory (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.), 17(3), 130–133.

Marín-Morales, J., Higuera-Trujillo, J. L., Greco, A., Guixeres, J., Llinares, C., Scilingo, E. P., Alcañiz, M., & Valenza, G. (2018). Affective computing in virtual reality: emotion recognition from brain and heartbeat dynamics using wearable sensors. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 13657.

Oil and gas extraction - hazards. (n.d.). Osha.Gov. Retrieved October 9, 2021, from https://www.osha.gov/oil-and-gas-extraction/hazards

Schöne, B., Wessels, M., & Gruber, T. (2019). Experiences in virtual reality: A window to autobiographical memory. Current Psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 38(3), 715–719.

Tyng, C. M., Amin, H. U., Saad, M. N. M., & Malik, A. S. (2017). The influences of emotion on learning and memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1454.

Vasilevski, N., & Birt, J. (2020). Analysing construction student experiences of mobile mixed reality enhanced learning in virtual and augmented reality environments. Research in Learning Technology, 28(0). https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v28.2329

Zlomuzica, A., Preusser, F., Totzeck, C., Dere, E., & Margraf, J. (2016). The impact of different emotional states on the memory for what, where and when features of specific events. Behavioural Brain Research, 298(Pt B), 181–187.

An Interview with an Online Trainer

Recently, I interviewed a trainer at my organization, HASC, where we design, develop and deliver training for employees who work in the petrochemical and oil refining industries. This trainer has been at the forefront of HASC's work to integrate a live virtual classroom to provide our instructor-led training classes via an online platform. Virtual online training is a new product line for HASC. The trainer selected for this interview has had to develop many tools and techniques to make it successful. He mentioned that he developed most of these techniques based on his experiences with live, in-person courses and trial and error rather than formal training or from a book. 

According to Orcutt and Dringus (2017), the Community of Inquiry (CoI) model establishes a framework by which presence can help facilitate online interaction and learning transfer. The "CoI defines the existence of teaching presence through the interaction that occurs between students and instruction" (Orcutt & Dringus, 2017, p. 18). Although the trainer interviewed for this project was not aware of CoI specifically, once he began his interview and CoI was explained, he realized how many of the techniques he employed were used to establish CoI and facilitate the creation of social presence. When discussing what he had found out about online education and what might have surprised him, the trainer talked about the limitations and challenges he had experienced and mentioned that establishing a connection with the learner and creating engagement was more difficult than in in-person training. Most of the interview centered on the techniques that the trainer utilizes to design and develop a social presence, which with teaching presence and cognitive presence, according to Orcutt and Dringus (2017), are the "three primary and interdependent elements" of CoI (p. 19). When discussing what tools or techniques the trainer utilized to overcome this challenge of social presence, the trainer addressed the use of technology and tools that allowed the learner to see the trainer and vice versa. He also discussed his use of humor, charisma, and props to create enthusiasm and esprit de corps. Finally, he discusses his efforts to generate what he called "personal responsibility" on the part of the learner so that they would want to learn and use what they learned after the class was completed. 

HASC provides virtual online training in a synchronous, video-centric environment. Some of the mandates for being a learner in these classes includes having a camera centered on the learner at all times, a microphone, a computer with access to Zoom Meetings, and speakers. By enforcing this type of setup, the trainer felt he had a better chance of establishing his social presence by having an actual, visual presence with the learners. Having experimented with it in past classes, he said that not having cameras on both the learner and the trainer encouraged a sense of disembodiment and separation. This was not surprising in that HASC has conducted dozens of online seminars during 2019 and 2020, and a best practice identified by our marketing team was to establish engagement via the use of webcam rather than not. What was surprising was that this trainer had not specifically been told to do this, but felt it was the right thing to do to help his learners get to know him and trust him quickly.  The trainer is young, but has been training formally in in-person classrooms for several years. In his classes he works hard to be agreeable and enthusiastic. He tries to create a sense of connection and networking with his classes.

Along the lines of physical presence, the trainer also discussed the need to establish and provide an omnipresence to create a feeling of online social presence. During the interview, the trainer referenced a passage from Pike and Massie (2015), "if you want to squelch motivation, show up just in time to make your presentation, leave immediately after, and make sure you stay unavailable during breaks" (p. 39). The trainer mentioned that he ensured that he was around to chat before the start of the synchronous online course, during breaks, and after class wrapped up for the day. He said that this seemed to help the learners gain trust in him and answer their questions no matter when or what was happening and provided a sense of omnipresence.

The trainer mentioned that throughout his classes he tries to be energetic and use positive humor to draw the learners in. This includes using hats, glasses, and wigs to make light of his appearance. The trainer's use of humor and charisma to help establish social presence is well founded in theory and literature. Kyei-Blankson et al. (2019) discuss the importance of humor and tone in establishing social presence. Both of these, as well as sharing personal stories and discussions, lead to the learner having "a greater sense of community" (Kyei-Blankson et al., 2019, p. 54).

The interview with the trainer also revealed that during the online training, he would ask the learners to approach the training by applying their own life lessons and focus on the areas where they could see relevancy to their own lives. As Ekmekci (2013) states, having students work on real-world problems provides a sources for motivation and interest for the learners. Problem-based learning or PBL as they define it, allows students to share their thoughts, history, and experiences with the trainer and with one another. Additionally, during his interview, the trainer mentioned that he made sure to allow the learners in his synchronous online courses the opportunity to form breakout groups, allowed the time for interaction of a personal nature, and worked to encourage a network of learning and continual communication among the learners. Both Pike and Massie (2015) and Kyei-Blankson et al. (2019) discuss the importance of this type of networking and fostering this both during the class, and during breaks, before and after the class to create a sense of community and encourage the establishment of social presence by the trainer. An intriguing aspect to this is that the trainer mentioned that he endeavors to do this same type of community development in his in-person classes, and felt it was natural to try and promote this same aspect to the online courses. Additionally, he has gone out of his way to develop devices that will work specifically for the online environment as well as use those that will work in either medium. The trainer mentioned not just that he wanted to bring the same sense of community to an online environment, but also that it would take different tactics to establish this community in a virtual setting. This trainer is in his early thirties, and has experiences in the virtual world and with social media. He used these experiences and history to help develop his skills in developing community in his online classes. 

Finally, the trainer mentioned the need to instill the learners with a feeling of personal responsibility. Pike and Massie (2015) discuss this often in Chapter 3 of their book where they discuss motivation. The trainer mentioned this portion of the book during the interview and why he relied on this aspect so heavily. Making the learners responsible for a) leading group sessions, bringing group work to an end, and leading discussion within breakout groups, b) giving the learners choices and options as to what they want to share, discuss or learn, and c) carving out time for "teach back" sessions, were all techniques that this trainer mentioned as tools he used to help learner's establish and keep a feeling of personal responsibility for the training and what they learned. The trainer discussed his use of the acronym "WIIFM" which stands for "what's in it for me." The trainer stated that he believes that instilling a sense of purpose, showing the trainees what is in it for them if they finish the training, and helping them see how successfully working through the class can have positive outcomes for them, makes his job easier because the learners are self-motivated. The trainer thought of these techniques to help establish a learning community naturally, rather than studying in a course or reading a book on online teaching. He mentioned that he felt it was right to model the same atmosphere online that he did in his in-person classes. 

HASC's virtual online live training is a synchronous environment that provides training that lasts at the longest, just three days. The trainer who was interviewed for this project admitted that he saw the challenges of transitioning HASC's instructor-led classes to online virtual live courses and worked hard not only on the content but also with delivery so he could ensure that the learners were motivated, engaged, and got the most out of the learning experience. Innately he understood that his work to establish a social presence would help create that motivation, engagement, and effectiveness of training. Asynchronous learning programs that last weeks or months allow trainers the chance to establish a CoI and create presence over time through various tools and techniques. The trainer interviewed here realized that his social presence had to be established quickly and used as many devices as he could at once to help make that occur for his classes. As Boettcher and Conrad (2016) state, "one of the best ways to get an online cours off on the right foot is to ensure the social presence of the instructor and all the learners" (p. 81). His work conforms with established principles of developing CoI and establishing social and teacher presence, yet he worked these things out without the aid of a book or studies. 

 

References

Boettcher, J. V. & Conrad, R. (2016). The online teaching survival guide: Simple and practical pedagogical tips (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Ekmekci, O. (2013). Being there: Establishing instructor presence in an online learning environment. Higher Education Studies, 3(1), 29–38.

Kyei-Blankson, L., Ntuli, E., & Donnelly, H. (2019). Establishing the importance of interaction and presence to student learning in online environment. (2019). Journal of Interactive Learning Research., 30(4), 539-560.

Orcutt, J. M., & Dringus, L. P. (2017). Beyond being there: Practices that establish presence, engage students and influence intellectual curiosity in a structured online learning environment. Online Learning, 21(3), 15–35. 

Pike, B., & Masie, E. (2015). Master trainer handbook: Tips, tactics, and how-tos for delivering effective instructor-led, participant-centered training. HRD Press.

eLearning Opportunities

When I worked for a former company we had a 40-hour hazwoper training mandate (a full week of training before a new employee could go into the field), and over 50 locations across the nation. Prior to this Virtual Classroom being set up we had safety managers flying around training people in small groups, taking up their valuable time, and some were not great trainers. By creating a virtual network of classrooms we improved consistency, sped up the onboarding time significantly, and saved tens of thousands. Still, quality compared to a live trainer was lacking. 

To counter this 1) we recycled iPhones and set up quizzes (retrieval practice events) throughout the training, 2) provided videos and required the class to provide safety analysis regarding mistakes made in the videos, 3) created hands-on training lockers that allowed the class to try on and use the equipment during the training in a controlled environment, 4) created an interactive workbook that kept the trainees engaged during the training, and 5) set up spaced retrieval practice and reinforcement to follow and begin each day. At the time the project ended we were on the cusp of sending mobile coaching directly to the trainee's phones via text during their off-hours and after training. 

The purpose of all of these accouterments to the primary training deliverable was to engage the trainees in a variety of ways and constantly keep them active. We won several best in class safety and training awards for our work and it was a terrific standard to keep within the industry. Sadly, it was not scalable. A class of 20 was our virtual limit, while classes of 50 were standard with a live trainer. 

All this being said, I wonder how universities will be able to justify their class price tags when they increase their virtual classroom offering. Will parents who were content to pay 20K to 50K a semester in tuition want to pay that same amount for classes that are primarily online? I think it goes back to what we found. How many other reinforcement tools and engagement devices can they integrate into the training to make the class more effective and justify the price? 

Since we found that our limit was reached quickly, that our quality suffered when we had too many students, I wonder if this new COVID era of teaching might allow smaller colleges and universities to flourish? 

And as an aside, I provided training via the virtual classroom many times from my office, my home office, from hotels on the road and from my parent's house during the Christmas holidays once. The flexibility can't be beat.

Journals

 Step one in publishing a journal article, is to select the topic and select the journal(s). Ergo, . . . topic selected below, and some journals I'm targeting.

Topic - VR and Emotion in Industry Training

Crystallized and Fluid

I really liked the differentiation between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence in our text for Adult Learning and Adult Development. It was in chapter 12. It discusses the differences between crystallized intelligence vs fluid intelligence. 

The text states "crystallized intelligence normally underlies tasks that test knowledge that is accumulated through experience and years of education" (p. 234) then fluid intelligence is defined as "an ability used for spatial and abstract reasoning tasks such as solving numerical or spatial puzzles" (p. 234). 

When I think about these definitions I think about our work with virtual reality where we are trying to challenge our learners to use both their crystallized and fluid intelligence. We ask the learners to use their experience and education on theory as well as their fluid intelligence to work on a problem in a virtual world. 

Then there is this on personal agency and mental time travel. The ability of learners to put themselves into situations using their minds and their perceptions of the world. This too has tie-ins to virtual reality. 

In our VR courses, we are asking our learners to transport themselves into a virtual world where their minds make them feel as if they are in an actual refinery work site. Sure we help them with immersive realism and other facets, but it's the learner's job to believe it. 

The text states that forming a sense of self and social identity "enables individuals to select and shape the environments they encounter, to develop skills to meet future challenges" (p. 217).  The reason we do this for our adult learners is in a sentence in the next column; "knowing what one can and cannot do is vital to one's self-concept because it can influence goal-setting, effort expenditure, and feeling of self-efficacy and self-worth" (p. 217). 

Greater self-efficacy for our learners can have payoffs for our learners, the worksites, and the communities. 

Reference

Hoare, Carolyn (Ed.) (2011) The Oxford Handbook of Reciprocal Adult Development and Learning. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978-0199736300.

Microlearning and Virtual Classroom Panel

I’m actually on a panel next month to discuss effective engagement in virtual classroom environments for industrial and petrochemical manufacturing organizations. I have quite a bit of history with virtual classrooms that continues on now. Below is me and Wendy working on a virtual classroom that we delivered for our organization.  

Most of the content my organization delivers is very short and quick... sometimes less than an hour. The longest course we have is for five days. It is very difficult to find ways like discussion posts which are so critical for learning and have the trainees reflect on the content after the course. When you deal with a college course, where the content is spread out over several weeks and months, it makes more sense to use technology for discussion and self-reflection.

That being said in some of our courses, especially those that last less than a day, we have chatbots that the trainees can use to help reinforce the content immediately upon delivery. We are also experimenting with VR to augment training. Those chatbots or VR exercises would not be very effective in a course like this one. 

However, if I was going to suggest one piece of technology that more than anything else would help classes with long-term memory development I would have to say spaced iterative learning or microlearning. We have been using microlearning technologies to interact with trainees after the training to help reinforce the training objectives after the initial block training is delivered. We’ve tried microlearning for the initial delivery system with less than spectacular results. Also, we are testing our trainees with these microlearning reinforcement moments so they have to re-engage those memory cells and make more resilient memories.  

Microlearning applications that break down block learning into smaller chunks and deliver it directly to the trainees at times when they have more capability to focus on the training help reinforce learning objectives far more than any other technology. 

Apply Dewey’s Concept of Experiential Learning to VR Courses

Lamoreaux and Taylor (2011) write that “…the crucial role of experience in learning is often traced to Dewey (1938) who held that all genuine education comes through experience” (Hoare, 2011, p. 84). In my work with virtual reality (VR) at HASC, a non-profit contractor safety, and skills training organization, experiential learning makes up a significant factor in the learner’s experience. The authors continue by discussing how Kolb believes that experience becomes knowledge through reflection (Hoare, 2011). 

Then several passages later the authors break down, using examples of what learners should ask of themselves to progress through Kolb’s cycle of a) concrete experience, b) reflective observation, c) abstract conceptualization, and d) active experimentation (Hoare, 2011). 

VR use as a medium for experiential learning and to involve learners in the cyclic process described by Kolb is not unique or new (Sankaranarayanan et al., 2018), but by applying more reflection and further experimentation, there is the possibility to make VR learning more effective for the learners that HASC serves.

HASC has been working for several years to find ways to make VR courses more impactful for our adult learners. Allowing the learner to experience the course in a safe environment is just one benefit of VR. The benefits of hands-on instruction over traditional computer-based training (CBT) and traditional lecture can be found in numerous studies (Daniels, 2006; Palis & Quiros, 2014; O. Ekwueme, et al, 2015). VR courses allow the learner to experience many of the benefits of hands-on instruction but, also allow for the application of procedures in an immersive environment, which can be programmed to display dangerous scenarios, in a safe, yet realistic setting (Sankaranarayanan et al., 2018). 

In 2020, HASC published a white paper describing a study of a VR course that included over 1800 participants. This study demonstrated that CBT courses augmented with VR exercises improved long-term memory recall for the participants (Health and Safety Council, 2020). By following Kolb’s experiential learning cycle more thoroughly there is the potential of helping learners improve that long-term memory recall beyond the approximately 10% that HASC found in the previous study. 

Lamoreaux and Taylor (2011) also discuss Brookfield’s view on experiences by citing; “Brookfield (1998) echoes that experiences don’t happen to us, events happen to us, in his view, mere sense data is not in itself an experience. It becomes an experience when we attend to it or according to Kolb (1984) reflect on it” (Hoare, 2011, p. 84). 

The task would be for HASC to find a way that allows learners to not just experience the VR exercise, and actively experiment with the procedure within the virtual world, but to complete all of the steps of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and allow learners to reflect on the observation and conceptualize abstractly. When providing examples of this observation and abstract conceptualizing, Lamoreaux and Taylor write about reflection with: “Why did I do it (that way)? What did I see, (notice, feel) and why? Does it always happen this way?” (Hoare, 2011, p. 92). About abstract conceptualization they write these questions the learners should ask of themselves: “What might explain different behavior or feelings? . . . Are there other explanations or perspectives?” (Hoare, 2011, p. 84). These are questions that HASC should be compelling our learners to ask, rather than simply ushering them through an experience within a virtual world.

Miettinen (2000) provides a visual representation of John Dewey’s concept of experiential learning according to Kolb on page 64 which has been reproduced in Figure 1 below. This diagram shows how adult learners absorb, process, reflect on, and reassess information with the end goal of moving from impulse to purpose. Miettenen (2000) also discusses how Tom Burke, a student of Dewey’s summarized this cycle of understanding and learning. This passage has been reproduced as an illustration in Figure 2. Taking both of these as models and applying HASC’s VR course, there could be an opportunity for making HASC’s VR courses more effective through re-evaluation, reflection,as shown in Figure 3.  

Figure 1

Reproduction of Mittenen (2000) John Dewey’s Concept of Experiential Learning According to Kolb (p. 64) 

 

Figure 2

Illustration of Tom Burke’s description of John Dewey’s Concept of Experiential Learning from Mittenen (2000, p. 64)

Figure 3

Illustration of HASC’s VR Course Development Model with Dewey’s Experiential Learning Concept

 

At this point, HASC uses a cycle of the type shown in the figures once. This single cycle does not allow the learner to re-evaluate or reformulate their previous hypotheses, nor reflect and reconsider. Although there are reasons that having further cycles of understanding might be difficult to implement, the chance of utilizing Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and Dewey’s concept of experiential learning would greatly benefit the understanding of HASC’s learners. Finding opportunities to help HASC learners through the entirety of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, provides the learner a better chance of developing more resilient, long-term memories and might allow HASC learners a better chance of using the procedures from this learning in the field environment. 

 

References

Daniels, N. (2006). The effectiveness of hands-on activities compared to paper and pencil activities when teaching reading to first through fifth grade students. Old Dominion University.

Health and Safety Council. (2020). Gauging Effectiveness of 3D VR for Memory Retrieval. Retrieved October 10, 2021, from https://drive.google.com/file/d/1jvogEWVVL7BLQSZ08bab9S1RGS-llAwN/view?usp=sharing

Hoare, Carolyn (Ed.) (2011) The oxford handbook of reciprocal adult development and learning. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978-0199736300

Miettinen, R. (2000) The concept of experiential learning and John Dewey's theory of reflective thought and action, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19:1, 54-72, DOI: 10.1080/026013700293458

O. Ekwueme, C., E. Ekon, E., & C. Ezenwa-Nebife, D. (2015). The impact of Hands-on-approach on student academic performance in basic science and mathematics. Higher Education Studies, 5(6), 47. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v5n6p47

Palis, A. G., & Quiros, P. A. (2014). Adult learning principles and presentation pearls. Middle East African Journal of Ophthalmology, 21(2), 114–122. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-9233.129748

Sankaranarayanan, G., Wooley, L., Hogg, D., Dorozhkin, D., Olasky, J., Chauhan, S., Fleshman, J. W., De, S., Scott, D., & Jones, D. B. (2018). Immersive virtual reality-based training improves response in a simulated operating room fire scenario. Surgical Endoscopy, 32(8), 3439–3449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00464-018-6063-x