Working Memory Resource Depletion and Spaced Learning

The journal article "Extending Cognitive Load Theory to Incorporate Working Memory Resource Depletion: Evidence from the Spacing Effect" provides an intriguing look into long-term memory development and effective learning principles via spaced practice and cognitive load theory. Chen et al. (2017) describe their experiments as an attempt to explain how "cognitive load theory can be substantially extended by including working memory resource depletion" (p. 484) and how that can affect massed learning and spaced learning successes. Chen et al. (2017) express many times throughout the paper the superiority of spaced learning over massed learning, but admit that there is minimal theoretical basis or research into why the spacing effect is superior. This article and the experiments the authors describe are designed to help fill that gap regarding why the spacing effect is superior to massed learning.   

Chen et al. (2017) begin their article by describing the principles behind long-term memory development compared to working memory. The foundation they build through discussion on cognitive load theory and memory is well written and helps the reader understand their experiments. However, the information becomes muddled regarding intrinsic cognitive load and extraneous cognitive load, and the authors do not tie those two concepts into either the spacing effect or memory capacity (Chen et al., 2017).

 During the description of experiments 1 and 2, Chen et al. (2017) provide a clearly written breakdown of the principles they hope to prove through a detailed account of their investigation. Figure 3 illustrates their design for experiment 1 that gives the reader an easy-to-understand overview of the experimental design they followed. Their description of experiment 2 is also clear and detailed with easy to process illustrations that highlight the nature of how and why conditions were changed between the two experiments and how the authors hoped those changes would add greater validity and clarity to their expected results. 

Chen et al. (2017) provide examples of where their experimental design failed both in terms of delivery and in results. In both cases, the authors are able to impart to the reader a greater degree of honesty to their reporting and experiment design by describing these errors and how they corrected for those errors. First, when describing the first experiment, the authors admit that several test subjects wrote notes that would not have allowed for the correct test of their working memory. Secondly, the authors acknowledge that their experiment does not explain if "working memory depletion is the sole cause of resource depletion or whether there are other possible causes" (Chen et al., 2017, p. 498). In effect, the experiments determine if working memory resource depletion makes massed learning inferior to spaced learning rather than focusing on how or why spaced practice is more effective. 

A weakness of the article that is not addressed is whether or not the testing effect could affect the results of the experiments. Other research has "showed that after 24 h, the average test performance in the study-test condition was better than in the repeated-study condition. This finding suggests that a relatively long retention interval is required before the memory benefit of intermediate testing over restudying emerges" (Delaney et al., 2010, p. 116). The description of the design of the experiments does not exclude the testing effect as having an impact on the results. 

 Chen et al. (2017) state that their results show the benefits of the spacing effect over massed learning, but rather the design provides a "causal explanation of the spacing effect" (p. 497). Additionally, the authors iterate that their experiments help to show that cognitive resource depletion is better classified as working memory depletion in some circumstances. However, again, the experiment regarding working memory resource depletion does not necessarily prove the effectiveness of spacing so much that it shows how memory resource depletion negatively affects massed learning. Although the authors provide a compelling article that demonstrates a case built of incrementally more complex experiments, instead of showing that working memory resource depletion "provides a strong candidate explanation for at least some versions of the spacing effect" (Chen et al., 2017, p. 488), their experiments prove the ineffectiveness of massed learning over spaced learning.

 

References

Chen, O., Castro-Alonso, J. C., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2018). Extending cognitive load theory to incorporate working memory resource depletion: Evidence from the spacing effect. Educational Psychology Review, 30(2), 483–501. 

Delaney, P. F., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Spirgel, A. (2010). Spacing and testing effects. Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 53, pp. 63–147). Elsevier.

Actions Speak

 

New Leaders and Taking Command

One of my colleagues was discussing his being hired into a new organization. When he started he tried to model his work to those of the culture. Our professor asked about why we want to fit in an accomodate others when we start a new job.

I think it's like all new members to groups, there is a desire to fit in and please the group. In the military when there was a new leader for a squad, platoon, or company the first rule of thumb was to make no immediate changes. The leader was supposed to observe first before making any changes, especially major ones. 

Having taken on new positions in the past, I know there is a desire to mold the group in ways that you might have always wanted, to change things the way you might feel are necessary, to implement your vision. In my organization we provide leadership training for supervisors and field crew leaders and we discuss "transitioning to a leadership position," and the first thing we discuss is to do nothing but observe. New changes need to be sold, they need to be massaged to meet the needs of the organization, there may even need to be internal buy-in from the rest of the group for the changes to be successful. 

I think what my colleague described about his new role shows leadership maturity. Prior to making changes he is assessing and gauging the environment to be sure that his ideas are implemented successfully. It's the poor leader who comes in and immediately starts making changes without knowing the landscape. We had a new First Sergeant take over our Company when I was in the Military and he immediately started making changes. His changes took twice as long as otherwise and their was never any internal buy-in for them. His tenure was a failure for the most part. When I think about new leadership positions, it is this first sergeant I think about and his example reminds me to wait to make any changes. 

Plato and Reality

One of the chapters in Morgan's Images of Organization that I am reminded of when marketing is discussed is the chapter on Organizations as Psychic Prisons where Morgan discusses Plato's cave and what people see and believe is reality (the shadows on the wall of the cave) vs what is the true reality outside the cave. 

I think part of successful marketing includes helping consumers see that true reality and helping them break away from the faux reality of the shadows they may see. 

On page 208 Morgan (2006) writes, "if one of the inhabitants were allowed to leave the cave, he would realize that the shadows are just reflection of a more complex reality and that the knowledge and perceptions of his fellow cave dwellers are distorted and flawed."

Our professor brought up the petrochemical and oil industry and auto companies during our discussion and that always invigorates me. At the moment we can all see the incredible transition going on within our society regarding the oil industry and what powers our vehicles. It is the role of the marketing professional in the petrochemical industry to help consumers realize that there is more to the oil industry than moving cars and trucks. 

The petrochemical industry produces plastics that make so many goods lighter and more durable than previous versions, and medical equipment and safe coatings that would not be around with the byproducts of the oil industry. Lubricants, asphalts and textiles are also byproducts of the oil industry. So often the oil industry gets a bad reputation because all the consumer sees are the shadows on the wall, rather than the more complex reality of all the good things that come from petrochemical refining that make our modern world easier to live in. 

Reference

Morgan, G. (2006). Images of Organization (Updated Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Self-Regulating Organizations

When I think about "self-regulating organizations" I think of my own organization and those like it and the umbrella organization/system that we all adhere to. 

In the late 1980's there were several severe and devastating accidents in our industry that necessitated and showed that our industry needed better safety systems and training, especially the Phillips explosion in Pasadena. These accidents led to the creation of our organization, a non-profit, contractor training group whose mission is providing training for contractors. 

About the same time ARSC (Association of Reciprocal Safety Councils) was created to allow for standards of contractor training for all safety councils. This allows the refinery owners to propose standards that ARSC tries to fulfill through the safety councils. As new dangers are identified, the system adjusts and regulates the training standards to ensure the the contract workers are trained appropriately and workers are kept safe. 

One thing we see is that the bureaucracy that makes up ARSC is too slow to innovate and adopt to the changing nature, and effective and engaging training capabilities that are coming into the market. Instead of finding new ways to innovate and create effect training, ARSC has become an anchor that stops innovation. In some ways this is good in that they are ensuring standardization. In others they are slowing progress and making it harder to provide quality training. It reminds me of last weeks discussion on red-tape in bureaucracy. 

Regardless, ARSC, the non-profit safety councils, and the refineries have creating a self-regulating system that tries to stay in front of government regulation and ensure that safety training is provided and workers are kept as safe as possible. Although accidents still happen, and their is still more work to do to keep contractors, workers, and communities safe, this system of self-regulating organizations has taken safety training a long way toward a safer environment than what we see in many other industries, and since the late 1980's.

What we also see are other non-profit association with tangential connections to these safety councils that will spring up to enforce standards. One that is nascent in our industry and trying to create standards is the Water Jet Technology Association. They are creating standards of safety that refineries can enforce, and that contractors must train up to, to help ensure safety training standards are met for dangerous water blasting work within refineries and petrochemical plants. Just a few years into their mission they've already started to make inroads into what before was a hodge-podge mix of different standards within contracting groups. 

Minimum Design

I marked a passage in Images of Organizations by Gareth Morgan (2006) on page 111 that stated: "The principle of minimum design suggests that managers should define no more than necessary to launch a particular initiative or activity on its way. They have to avoid the role of "grand designer." 

The idea of Grand Designer is interesting, but then there there is more to organizations than just having a leader with a vision and design. Organizations need variety. Another passage I marked in Morgan (2006) on page 108 discusses "internal diversity" and "requisite variety" and the fact that these must match the diversity and variety of the systems and cultures the organization services. 

Finally, on page 111 again Morgan (2006) states "the challenge is to avoid the anarchy and the completely free flow that arises when there are no parameters or guidelines, on the one hand, and over-centralization, on the other." 

I have dealt with this in organizations in the past. In my last position we had two departments, one that was highly standardized and managed, one that was looser and less regulated. These two departments were usually at odds and their leadership too is at odds. Together the two had to inhabit the same organization and work toward common goals, and thankfully everyone was professional enough to do so. 

However there was tension between the two groups. Many found this tension hard to work with, but I find that the tension and the conflict helped find new ways to find paths through the challenges we faced. There was no one way to overcome and navigate challenges and by having a variety of options and types of management we were able to find the most effective path for success. 

It's great to have a vision and a design, but leaders must also be open and flexible enough to allow new things to bubble up and react to them appropriate. A hard and fast "grand design" doesn't allow for this creativity and it's a good leader is one who can allow for that, promote it, and use it to positive outcomes.

References

Morgan, G. (2006). Images of organizations (updated edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Wonderful Compliment

 This week someone gave me such a wonderful compliment. They said I had a great attitude. 

I agree, btw. I think I do. 

You know what? I have a way to go. Based solely on Maggie on Great British Baking Show, I have a LONG way to go. 

I wrote a lot about this the other day on my other blog (see here), but it’s worthwhile to discuss here too. I went on quite a bit on that blog about attitudes and how they are formed and how it’s up to us to set our attitudes, and not up to someone else to dictate. 

Maggie is the very queen of this. I’ve never seen anyone smile so much. I’ve been watching the show for the last few weeks and I’ve been using her as a guide-on for my own attitude and happiness. We have to make our own happiness and I think it should be infectious. Maggie’s has never not smiled in the show. 

I would like that one day someone will say that about me, that I always smile and it’s infectious and positive. I’m almost there!

VR Qualitative Study Design

I find what Dr. Karen Myers-Bowman said about the difference between qualitative research and quantitative research is interesting. 

During the interview she mentions that in some ways qualitative research can be more honest than quantitative research results. The past few experiments that my organization has completed on the effectiveness of VR course delivery vs traditional CBT course delivery has relied heavily on quantitative research results. We are about to release a new version where our study will depend much more on a qualitative research design. 

For the past year this has bothered me and made me think that this study will be weaker than the one that used a quantitative design.  Now, based on what Dr. Karen Myers-Bowman has said, I'm interested in determining how our qualitative research design for this next iteration of VR delivery could be stronger, more honest, more transparent that our previous studies. This has made me realize that there is more power than weakness that can be built into qualitative research and I look forward to discovering more about this.

Researchers are still discovering the virtues of qualitative research. We will need to undertake a study that will need to rely far more on qualitative research than we have been used to. We will need to embrace a mixed methods study design, but I think that having that will (or can) make the study far stronger than one that relies just on one strictly focused study design. I think if anything having the variety can make things far more rich and rigorous. This should lead to less discussion of virtues and defending qualitative to looking for ways to include it as much as possible. 

A Couple More Evershades that Caught My Eye

I ran into these and felt certain that I would need to share them as a part of my Evershade series (see HERE). 

This first is from Sensual Words and goes quite well with the image above. And like the others in this post is a bit tweaked. 

Marketing and Too Many Products

Marketing was an interesting chapter for me, but I wish it had offered more in terms of how to correct marketing problems. 

I know that in my own organization many departments are frustrated by our marketing department due to the fact that in almost every new client meeting we hear "I didn't know you did that?" about many of our products. 

In defense of the marketing department, our organization has had the tendency to innovate quickly for specific clients and roll out products for small subsets of our overall client base. So we have dozens and dozens of products that our created for specific clients that could potentially help other clients, but are not a part of our core business. This would make it very hard to market in that it's an ever changing landscape and with so many products it's hard to find focus points. 

I am reminded of an organization I worked with ten years ago that specialized in dash-mounted video cameras for police departments. They too had a plethora of products; dash-mounted video cams, interview recording, file transfer for courtrooms, automatic video upload, license plate reading technology, and more. The marketing department there operated on a very simple, foot in the door focus. They wouldn't market all of their products and dilute the offering, but put all of their focus on creating the best dash-mounted camera capabilities in the market, then once their foot was in the door the account management team would work with the account to expand their product offering to that client. 

It's tough to be in marketing but it's better to have one or two solid products rather than a multitude of products that no one knows aoubt and are hard to market. 

Reference

Schmidt, S. W., and Yelich Biniecki, S. M. (2016). Organization and administration of adult education programs: A guide for practitioners. Information Age Publishing, Inc.