Literature Review for VR

 Critical Literature Review of Immersive Virtual Reality Training

There are many studies and articles on how to engage adult learners effectively and ensure retention of learning objectives. This review focuses on one area within those studies, specifically the efficacy of immersive virtual reality (VR) as a training tool. VR training and VR studies have been carried out for decades, and still, there are mixed results about how practical VR training is compared to traditional training mechanisms and techniques. Although there are many facets to explore with VR training, this review focuses on the following areas of VR: a) practice and confidence, b) spatial navigation and perspective, and c) immersiveness. The intent is to determine if VR can effectively help learners develop more resilient long-term memories. The central question posed by this literature review is; "Can VR exercises help employees in the petrochemical and oil refining industries develop more resilient long-term memories?"

Rationale for Review and Statement of Purpose

The petrochemical and oil refinery industries follow strict compliance training demands and safety standards. To work in this field, technicians and operators must pass courses on safety standards, skills training, and compliance standards. Employees within this industry, especially field technicians and field operators, have very high turnover rates compared to other sectors (Lee, n.d.). High turnover rates generally mean that new employees entering the industry must be trained to the same rigorous compliance and safety standards as long-term employees with less experience to help them understand the concepts and process the information. Finding effective training tools that can help learners develop resilient long-term memories efficiently, without overwhelming training demands, is imperative to ensure the safety of new employees in the industry. 

Training augmented with VR exercises has the potential to provide the bridge between the traditional computer-based training (CBT) and hands-on training the industry relies on without the expense and difficulties involved in providing costly hands-on training. VR training provides an opportunity for training on equipment and in environments that would be difficult to access or obtain and dangerous to execute in traditional training scenarios. VR training can also be delivered more effectively to remote areas and can standardize processes to a degree that would difficult for traditional hands-on training. VR also allows for consistency within the training environment by not having different trainers providing different interpretations of the standards. By determining if VR can be a tool to augment traditional CBTs and develop more resilient long-term memory networks, employees in the petrochemical and oil refining industries could have more effective safety, skills, and compliance training before beginning jobs in dangerous work environments. 

There are three things that this review focuses on as they contribute to VR's success as a reinforcement training tool: first, there is the opportunity for practicing a task and the confidence gained through that practice. Secondly, this review will focus on how spatial navigation and perspective within VR can contribute to more resilient memory development. Finally, this review will examine whether or not immersiveness in VR plays a significant part in memory making when using VR as a tool.  

Search Strategy, Selection, and Screening

The search for articles for this review began on or about May 2020 and concluded in April of 2021. The articles for this review were found using several databases provided via the Kansas State University Education Databases and public searches through sites such as Google. Many of the articles were found via the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), Springer, and Taylor and Francis Online. The search terms used included the following:

• Virtual Reality Training

• Virtual Reality in Education

• Virtual Reality and Presence

• Virtual Reality and Vocational Schools

• Virtual Reality and Safety Training 

• Virtual Reality and Immersivness

• Virtual Reality and Embodiment

Several articles found using these searches provided links to other articles that provided more information and insight for this review. Finally, the search was limited to articles written within the last twenty years. A majority of those selected for this review were written after 2010.   Fifty-four articles were found for this review; of those only 29 were used as a part of this analysis. 

Practice and Confidence 

There are two potential benefits to practice. The first is the chance to practice procedures, usually complex processes, in a step-by-step method until they show an ability to perform the steps without the help of a learning aid. Developing psychomotor skills through the use of practice, following Simpson's model for development within the psychomotor domain (Ahmad et al., 2018, p. 2), can allow learners the chance to perform series of movements through procedures and eventually perform complex acts as their own. The second benefit to practice is that this ability to perform complex actions inspires confidence in the learner's skills and adds proficiency (Ahmad et al., 2018, p. 2). The review question regards how VR can help employees develop long-term memory in the petrochemical and oil refining industries. By practicing exercises in a VR environment, learners will follow Simpson's psychomotor domain model, which develops competency and confidence through hands-on practice. 

Figure 1

Screenshot of Excel Learning Journal Chart

 

This review found 12 articles that directly or indirectly addressed and studied whether or not VR provided positive outcomes in terms of memory development for the learner via practice. Of those 12 articles, three articles focused on improved confidence through VR practice opportunities. The most sweeping study in terms of sample size focused on the ability for learners to practice speeches and improve and gain confidence in public speaking through VR exercises. Davis et al. (2019) focused on how VR exercises might help a sample from 195 learners overcome speech phobias in public speaking and randomly selected learners into either a VR study group or a traditional study group. Davis et al. (2019) measured through quantitative means and qualitative questionnaires how participants performed in their respective environments. Although the study found that VR generally provided more positive outcomes, there was not a considerable change in test scores that could prove that VR exercises helped learners become better speakers. In terms of building confidence, however, Davis et al. (2019) reported that "the participants in both the test and control groups agreed that the experience helped them to feel less anxious and more prepared for their actual performance" (p. 79). 

Unlike the article by Davis et al. (2019), where the findings regarding post-test scores after VR training showed no significant improvement, seven articles found improved post-test scores when learners had an opportunity to utilize VR exercises. Two of the most significant of these focused on processes that could be practiced in VR and then performed in real-life environments later. Colombo et al. (2014) focused on identifying improperly closed valves and reporting leaks while learners navigated through a virtual chemical plant, while Barsom et al. (2020) focused on safety training in cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR). The content trained in both of these courses is similar to what learners in the petrochemical and oil refinery field would be asked to navigate as a part of their compliance, safety, and skills training. Both articles showed that learners with the opportunity to practice in a VR environment improved their scores in the post-test measurement. 

Of the ten articles that focus on experiments that directly or indirectly mention confidence and practice, only two found any results that were not positive for using VR for practice. Those included the study by Davis et al. (2019) and a study focused on immersion within head-mounted displays (HMDs) by Harman et al. (2018). In both of these cases, the VR learners did not show a statistically significant difference to the non-VR counterparts. Harman et al. (2008) ascribe some of that difference to the cognitive load placed on the learner during the experiment (p. 12). A second reason for the difference could be that practice improvement results were a secondary focus of the investigation, rather than the primary focus. 

This review found that more often than not the opportunity for learners to practice actions they might make in the real world in a VR environment provided more resilient memory (Ahmad et al. 2018; Allcoat & Mühlenen, 2018; Barsom et al., Colombo et al., 2014; 2020; Hamilton et al., 2020; Harman et al., 2018; Kaminska et al., 2020; Sankaranarayanan et al. 2018; Weber, 2016). This was in most cases confirmed by comparing pre-test and post-test measurements immediately following the delivery of the information. 

Spatial Navigation and Perspective

By asking trainees to act and move in a virtual environment, learners can expect to activate multiple types of neural cells that have been shown to provide more profound, more resilient memories for learners (Eichenbaum, 2017; Krokos et al., 2019; Schiller et al., 2015). Several research articles selected for this review focused on how the human brain process information to store memories and the relationship that the hippocampus has in making those memories. One aspect of these articles to VR is the importance of head direction cells, place cells, and grid cells as part of the memory-making processes (Krokos et al., 2019, p 2). These different mechanisms can help make VR training more effective than traditional CBT learning due in part to their involvement in creating memories using "spatial representations in the brain" (Krokos et al., 2019, p 2). This review focused on articles to determine how deeper, more resilient memories can be made within VR environments and in what way the hippocampus plays a part in developing those memories. This review found 10 articles that had either a primary or secondary focus on spatial awareness and memory-making.

Figure 2

Screenshot of Excel Learning Journal Chart

 

Schiller et al. (2015) explore the role of the hippocampus and how memory is related to navigation, going so far as to posit from the review of research that the hippocampus is intensely involved in spatial mapping and directly related to memory. Burgess et al. (2002) state that "information about the events in our VR episodic memory task is retrieved in the form of an index-like code in the hippocampus, based in part on the location of the subject" (p. 636). Eichenbaum (2017) went so far as to map out different areas of the hippocampus that might be used for different types of memory, primarily focusing on the spatial memory and navigation aspects of memory-making. In Schiller et al. (2015), a similar review of research finds that the hippocampus's role in cataloging and determining how incoming information and memories should be stored shows the importance of activating grid cells, head cells, and boundary cells to making stronger, more resilient memories. The effectiveness of VR is shown through these articles as an effective tool for advancing long-term memory development using spatial cognition and these different brain mechanisms as keystones. Memories are more resilient because they are made up of multiple memory-making cells, such as place cells, grid cells, boundary cells, and head direction cells (Eichenbaum, 2017; Krokos et al., 2019). Many, if not all, of these are activated through the use of VR. Multiple trace memory theory is the idea that a) memories become stronger the more times they are accessed, and b) the more pathways exist between cells that create the memory (Hintzman & Block, 1971, p. 297), the higher the likelihood that the retrieval of that memory will be successful and the memory be a more precise representation of the event. Finding ways to make a more robust, more resilient pathway during memory formation, or forging multiple memory networks via various sensorimotor inputs, is vital in creating more long-lasting memories.

In what way does the hippocampus matter to VR and memory? As Burgess et al. (2002) show in their research article, there is a distinct difference in developing memory depending on whether or not the spatial representation is egocentric or allocentric. This allocentric memory encoding is more closely associated with memory encoding via the hippocampus (Burgess et al., 2002, p. 628). In contrast, other types, including egocentric memory development, are associated with the parietal neocortex (Burgess et al., 2002, p. 626), supported by the cognitive mapping theory. VR can support these types of memory-making capabilities, be they allocentric, meaning: centered on or from other objects in the area, or egocentric, meaning: trunk centered (Burgess et al., 2002, p. 626), which can make VR a more capable memory development tool for learning. 

Finally, memory palaces (method of loci), as defined in Krokos et al. (2019), is the idea of the brain spatially organizing information for later retrieval based on navigating imaginary structures to aid recall (p. 1). Krokos et al. (2019) designed an experiment to allow others to act on their findings and compared results through a quantitative test of images provided to the 40 learners on two-dimensional desktop monitors verse three-dimensional immersive head-mounted displays (HMD). These three-dimensional immersive HMDs helped to create "memory palaces" which allow the learner the chance to associate images to a place that can aid later recall. 

Tuena et al. (2019) bring all of the above information together into a holistic understanding in a systematic review to discuss how episodic memory, as well as allocentric and egocentric memory, are all processed in the hippocampus and linked together in a process known as "binding" (p. 2). Binding connects the embodied memory to the cognitive memory for later retrieval (Tuena et al., 2019, p. 2). Over the course of working through 647 articles, Tuena et al. (2019) determined that there are "positive results concerning the virtual enactment effect on spatial and episodic memory performance, highlighting the embodied potential of virtual reality (VR)" (p. 17). 

Utilizing more neural cells such as grid cells, place cells, head direction cells, and boundary cells, as well as mechanisms such as binding, combined with allowing learners the opportunity to view information with an allocentric perspective would allow for stronger memory development (Burgess et al., 2002; Tuena et al., 2019; Eichenbaum, 2017; Krokos et al., 2019). VR provides the opportunity for learners to utilize all of these mechanisms in their training. 

Immersiveness

Immersiveness is the feeling of being present or having presence in an online or virtual environment (Burgess et al., 2002, p. 627). This review looked for articles that focused either primarily or secondarily on immersiveness and presence as a feature of VR technology and how having a greater degree of immersiveness can contribute to more resilient long-term memories. Studies have shown that the practice of procedural tasks or processes in VR provided greater, more resilient memories than those that used non-immersive VR for training, as shown in the literature review by Hamilton et al. (2020, p. 25). As Lecavalier et al. (2018) write, "numerous studies have found that presence is positively related to performance" (p. 464). 

Figure 3

Screenshot of Excel Learning Journal Chart

 

This review found several articles that found positive results for the argument of having more immersive environments and a greater sense of presence within the VR exercise to create more resilient memory. Among the 14 research papers that dealt with immersiveness and presence, 13 were experiments to determine if immersiveness was effective as a part of a VR learning tool. Among the 13 experiments, five dealt specifically with an experiment that compared two-dimensional tools such as video or PowerPoint slides with three-dimensional VR conditions. In four of these cases, the three-dimensional VR condition provided greater recall than the two-dimensional training (Barsom et al. 2020; Colombo et al.; 2014, Krokos 2019; Lecavalier et al., 2018). In one experiment that compared three-dimensional VR to PowerPoint training, there was no significant difference between the two conditions immediately after training, but once the learner was given the opportunity to write a summary of their training, the three-dimensional VR group scored significantly higher scores than the two-dimensional condition (Parong & Mayer, 2018). For most of the experiments reviewed as a part of this study, the data show that immersive environments in VR provide a more significant opportunity for learning than a two-dimensional condition. 

Another feature of immersiveness and presence is the importance of embodiment to the VR condition. An experiment performed by and reported on by Brechet et al. (2019) discussed how embodiment is key to making long-lasting memories. In their study, Brechet et al. (2019) discover that learners, when provided the opportunity to interact with an immersive three-dimensional virtual environment, remembered in the long-term, or delayed retrieval test, more information than those learners who had no representation of their body or who had a representation of the joystick control in their field of view (p. 13). Although this study might have findings relevant to the positive argument of "embodiment" in virtual reality, it also is relevant to the idea that egocentric and allocentric memory encoding in VR is more effective for long-term memory retrieval. 

Of the 15 articles that had a primary or secondary focus on immersiveness in VR, the most noteworthy were those dealing with safety training procedures or working with adults. Both of these aspects are factors that are prevalent as a part of the review question. The study by Lecavalier et al. (2018) meets all of these characteristics. Lecavalier et al. (2018) focused on 57 older adults and their ability to recall episodic memories in a VR setting and resulted in data that showed that using VR exercises for older adults showed the same promise as using it for younger populations and that other factors such as cybersickness concerns and motivation were not insurmountable for the population (p. 474).

VR provides the opportunity to create immersive environments for learners. Most of the articles that experimented with immersiveness as a primary or secondary focus found that immersiveness or presence in a VR exercise provided more resilient memories in the post-test measurement than two-dimensional training methodologies (Baily et al., 2012; Colombo et al., 2014; Krokos et al., 2019; Lecavalier et al., 2018; Krokos; Sankaranarayanan et al., 2018; Weber, 2016; Yildirim et al., 2018). 

Limitations

There are some limitations of this critical review and the ability to answer the review question. Two of the articles reviewed for this paper discuss the use of VR to change cultural norms. Bailey et al. (2012) investigate the use of VR to change water use habits, while Lau (2015) experiments with how best to teach an organization's culture to new employees during onboarding. In both of these cases, VR proved to be a poor catalyst for changing habits and the learner's culture. Additionally, only two studies focused on an audience type similar to those found in field or operator work within the petrochemical or oil refining industry. Both Colombo et al. (2014) and Kamińska et al. (2020) focused on mechanical aspects of work in and around refineries and/or with a learning cohort similar to field technicians and operators. Both found that VR provided training advantages for the learners. Finally, the review question mentions the ability of field technicians and operators to develop long-term memories. Only one article in this review had a measurement tool that extended beyond one day. Schöne et al. (2017) used a delayed retrieval measurement of 48 hours as a part of a recall experiment which provided evidence that VR training became a deeper memory than conventional video training (p. 715). Schöne et al. (2017) was not an article selected for this review as it did not specifically address any of the areas, immersiveness, practice, nor spatial navigation as thoroughly as many of the articles that were selected. Most of the articles found for this review focused on the immediate impact of VR on learning. The lack of study into long-term retention following VR training, combined with the limited number of experiments performed on learners similar to those found in the petrochemical and oil refining industries, could mean that the positive results found in this review might not translate to those industries. Additionally, the limited data found on changing culture could indicate that improving safety culture through VR is not a worthwhile undertaking. 

Conclusion

The data in the articles that were selected for this review show that VR, as compared to traditional two-dimensional training, has benefited learners in terms of recall. The review question focuses not only on immediate recall but also on long-term recall and retention. As mentioned in the Limitations section above, only one article measured retention beyond a few hours (Schöne et al., 2017). Finding articles and research that find ways to measure the long-term recall and retention of information presented via VR should be the next goal in this study. As shown by the articles in this review, the fact that VR stimulates so many brain mechanisms like spatial awareness, allocentric perspectives, grid cells, place cells, head direction cells, and boundary cells should all help to create more resilient and, therefore long-term memories. Still, the studies that prove this long-term memory development via VR were not found as a part of this review. 

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Research Purpose, Questions, & Rationale for Virtual Reality and Emotion Exercises

The Health and Safety Council (HASC) is a non-profit contractor association that trains contractors in safety and skills tasks needed for working in petrochemical and oil refining facilities. 

Due to the large number of contractors who work on these sites, the most cost-effective and efficient method of providing this training has been computer-based training (CBT). 

HASC is researching the effectiveness of virtual reality (VR) as a tool to augment these CBTs to make CBTs more effective since finding more effective, engaging ways to utilize CBT training falls within HASC's mission (Health and Safety Council, 2006). As a part of this innovation, HASC is working to make the VR training more effective though the use of emotional videos.

In 2020, HASC developed a CBT that included VR exercises and studied the efficacy of VR exercises by comparing tests between a control group and an experimental group. The control group was provided a standard CBT with knowledge checks and tests. The experimental group had the same content as the control group but was allowed to take VR exercises to reinforce learning objectives. The analysis of this 2020 study showed that CBT courses augmented with VR exercises provided more resilient long-term memory formation than those without VR exercises (Health and Safety Council, 2020). 

HASC has released another CBT course with VR exercises that includes job-relevant videos with an emotionally compelling storyline. These are taken in the fully immersive VR headset along with the exercises. The intent of this new CBT is to determine what effects VR exercises with emotionally compelling videos might have on learners' understanding of the training concepts and the gravity of the procedures the training covers. Other studies such as Tyng et al. (2017) and Diemer et al. (2015), have found links between emotion and long-term memory formation and HASC intends to provide greater learner long-term memory formation using emotion as well as VR.

Rationale for the Study

HASC has developed a CBT course with VR exercises with emotionally compelling videos to try and increase long-term memory retention for the learners who take the course. This has been demonstrated in other studies where emotions are elicited via video and VR exercises (Marín-Morales et al., 2018, and Diemer et al., 2015). HASC hopes that videos showing interviews with affected family members and friends will create a sympathetic, emotionally resonant episode for learners that will increase the chances of retaining and recalling information later. When considering memories of our past, Holland and Kensinger (2010) write that "the past we recall often consists primarily of moments imbued with emotions" (p. 7). Additionally, Holland and Kensinger (2010) note that experiences that are more relevant and personal will likely be remembered more than those that have less relevance.

HASC deliberately excluded any analytical video analysis or emotions that might be perceived as negative when developing these videos. As Knorzer et al. (2016) write, more positive emotions in learning are a facilitator of knowledge and help learners enhance memory. In their investigation of Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Media (CATLM), they researched whether positive emotions before learning increased memory and instead found that although "learner's emotional state had a crucial impact on learning outcomes: Learners with a negative emotional state before learning outperformed learners with a positive emotional state" (Knorzer et al., 2016, p. 627). Therefore, rather than focusing on positive or negative emotional states per se, HASC's study will focus on feelings such as empathy, compassion, sympathy, and pity. Also, unlike the Knorzer et al. (2016) analysis, the emotionally resonant videos are played after the VR exercises and summarize the procedure rather than being shown before the learning. Another rationale for providing memories that are sympathetic rather than negative comes from a study on emotional memory and event memory by Kuriyama et al. (2010). The authors found through their study that in terms of episodic memory, "the more fearsome the event, the more likely it is to be inaccurately recognized" (p. 133) despite findings in other studies that seem to show event memory being strong when strong emotions are present, especially fear. 

Unlike Knorzer et al. (2016), Zlomuzica et al. (2016) found that through their experiments on providing emotional resonance through short videos and their effect on episodic memory, the impact of positive and anxious emotional states had no change on episodic memory retention. Zlomuzica et al. (2016) found "an inverse correlation between the level of negative arousal and performance scores in memory for spatial context" (p. 185). The final results from Zlomuzica et al. (2016) found that emotional arousal of the test subject before the learning had a more negligible effect on episodic memory but may "hamper the memory for the event-location association." As stated previously, unlike Zlomuzica et al. (2016), HASC hopes to stimulate emotional arousal after the learning and the training, rather than prior. 

Knorzer et al. (2015) also conducted experiments regarding prior knowledge and how prior knowledge might affect cognitive load and memory. Learner's "with high working memory capacity perceive complex learning materials as less difficult and can compensate additionally imposed (extraneous) cognitive load" (Knorzer et al., 2015, p. 620), and a "higher working memory capacity has also been found to be a significant predictor for learning success in multimedia learning" (Knorzer et al., 2015, p. 620). 

Many of the studies have been conducted using subjects who are not a part of the industrial field workforce that HASC supports. HASC works with field workers, leaders, and contractors who work around hazards on a daily basis that could cause serious injury to themselves, their colleagues, or environmental hazards for the communities (Oil and gas extraction - hazards, n.d.). Although there are several studies on industrial workers and VR training efficacy (Gavish et al., 2015 and Vasilevski & Birt, 2020 and Colombo et al., 2014), there is a gap in the research of how VR and training that elicits emotion can encourage these workers to perform their work more safely. 

Research Purpose

The purpose of this research is to determine how emotionally compelling videos affect the learner's understanding of the concepts of the CBT VR training. There is evidence from HASC's 2020 VR study (Health and Safety Council, 2020) that there is an increase in long-term memory formation when VR exercises are added to traditional CBT. There is little research that combines emotion, VR, and micro-learning exercises of this kind for the contracting community that HASC supports. The videos that have been created as a part of this experiment show learners an interview with family members of industrial workers who were critically injured or killed in real-world accidents using the same procedures as those the learners are trained on in the CBT course. As stated in other studies like Knorzer et al. (2015) and Zlomuzica et al. (2016), there is a link between creating resilient episodic memory and the learner's emotional state. Since the videos are directly relevant to the work procedures in the training course, there should be direct relevance for the learner, which like Holland and Kensinger (2010) find, provides for more resilient memory formation for the learner. Additionally, many HASC learners are contractors who have taken multiple courses at the council over many years. In many cases, these are redundant training courses and they reinforce classes that the contractor learner may have taken many times. As Knorzer et al. (2015) found regarding prior knowledge affecting cognitive load and memory, this prior knowledge should lead to greater long-term memory development as learners will be less overly taxed. Finally, since there is a relationship between positive and negative emotions on learner memory, rather than focusing on positive or negative emotional states, HASC will focus on feelings such as empathy, compassion, sympathy, and pity to arouse emotion in the learner.

Research Questions

The research questions HASC hopes to answer include:

• How do the learners who take the CBT courses with VR exercises describe the training course and concepts within them?

• What impact do the learners believe the VR and videos will have on their desire to follow procedures outlined in the course when they are in the field?

• How do the learners discuss the impact of the VR and videos compared to other training they have taken?

Definition of Key Terms/Constructs

CBT The acronym for Computer Based Training, the generic delivery process of providing training through a computer terminal. 

Contractor Workers, primarily field workers, who work on behalf of refinery and petrochemical facility owners. The predominant learning audience at HASC.

Episodic Memory A part of declarative memory that is focused on the specific, unique events around personal experiences (Schöne et al., 2019). 

HASC The common name/acronym for the Health and Safety Council. A non-profit operating in Pasadena, Texas since 1990 that trains contractors primarily within the petrochemical and oil and refinery industry to provide safety and skills training. 

Long-Term Memory Learning or recollection of events that are stored over an extended period of time. 

VR The acronym for Virtual Reality, 3D, immersive technology that provides interactive simulations for the learner.

 

References

Colombo, S., Nazir, S., & Manca, D. (2014). Immersive virtual reality for training and decision making: Preliminary results of experiments performed with a plant simulator. SPE Economics & Management, 6(04), 165–172.

Diemer, J., Alpers, G. W., Peperkorn, H. M., Shiban, Y., & Mühlberger, A. (2015). The impact of perception and presence on emotional reactions: a review of research in virtual reality. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 26.

Gavish, N., Gutiérrez, T., Webel, S., Rodríguez, J., Peveri, M., Bockholt, U., & Tecchia, F. (2015). Evaluating virtual reality and augmented reality training for industrial maintenance and assembly tasks. Interactive Learning Environments, 23(6), 778–798.

Health and Safety Council. (2006). Vision and Mission Statements. https://www.hasc.com/about-hasc/vision-mission/

Health and Safety Council. (2020). Gauging Effectiveness of 3D VR for Memory Retrieval. Retrieved October 10, 2021, from https://drive.google.com/file/d/1jvogEWVVL7BLQSZ08bab9S1RGS-llAwN/view?usp=sharing

Holland, A. C., & Kensinger, E. A. (2010). Emotion and autobiographical memory. Physics of Life Reviews, 7(1), 88–131.

Knörzer, L., Brünken, R., & Park, B. (2016). Emotions and multimedia learning: the moderating role of learner characteristics: Emotions in multimedia learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 32(6), 618–631.

Kuriyama, K., Soshi, T., Fujii, T., & Kim, Y. (2010). Emotional memory persists longer than event memory. Learning & Memory (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.), 17(3), 130–133.

Marín-Morales, J., Higuera-Trujillo, J. L., Greco, A., Guixeres, J., Llinares, C., Scilingo, E. P., Alcañiz, M., & Valenza, G. (2018). Affective computing in virtual reality: emotion recognition from brain and heartbeat dynamics using wearable sensors. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 13657.

Oil and gas extraction - hazards. (n.d.). Osha.Gov. Retrieved October 9, 2021, from https://www.osha.gov/oil-and-gas-extraction/hazards

Schöne, B., Wessels, M., & Gruber, T. (2019). Experiences in virtual reality: A window to autobiographical memory. Current Psychology (New Brunswick, N.J.), 38(3), 715–719.

Tyng, C. M., Amin, H. U., Saad, M. N. M., & Malik, A. S. (2017). The influences of emotion on learning and memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1454.

Vasilevski, N., & Birt, J. (2020). Analysing construction student experiences of mobile mixed reality enhanced learning in virtual and augmented reality environments. Research in Learning Technology, 28(0). https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v28.2329

Zlomuzica, A., Preusser, F., Totzeck, C., Dere, E., & Margraf, J. (2016). The impact of different emotional states on the memory for what, where and when features of specific events. Behavioural Brain Research, 298(Pt B), 181–187.

VR for HASC

Recently I had to write a white paper about a new project for work. I was excited by the opportunity to tackle, writing a paper that reflects research into Neuroscience and Learning and the Learning and the Brain, specifically for learning that takes place using Virtual Reality (VR) technology. Currently, my organization has developed and deployed a VR training that reinforces procedures and techniques for a "fire emergency" situation. The trainees that we host are used to taking training in a Computer Based Training (CBT) or eLearning format. Our new VR training provides reinforcement exercises and simulations that take place as a part of that typical or traditional CBT style of learning. By providing both this CBT mixed with VR exercises, alongside the same CBT without VR exercises, our hope is to analyze the results to determine if VR is an effective tool and is worth the investment.

I really enjoyed writing this paper for it gave me hope that we are moving in the right direction and that the results for long term memory and memory retrieval using this style of training is positive. Although I saw some results in the articles I studied that did NOT show the results I was hoping for, there was some reason to be positive.

Incidental Memory - One study on incidental memory asked test subjects to enjoy a VR exercise then asked them questions that had nothing to with the exercise. They were quizzed on what they saw and experienced tangential to the primary exercise. The results did not show a higher degree of incidental memory retrieval in the 3D VR simulation as the 2D simulation.

Place Cells, Grid Cells etc - I had the chance to read and understand much more about grid cells, place cells, head-direction cells, sensorimotor cells, border cells, and boundary vector cells and how all of these play a part in memory making and potential memory retrieval. All of this was new to me and I look forward to finding out more about how all of these affect memory.

Multiple Trace Theory - Dr. Fishback had discussed this memory theory before in this class and in our former class, but reading about it in more detail was intriguing and finding how our VR exercises can potentially lead to more traces, stronger memories, and the chance to access the memory more easily later is interesting.

Long-Term Memory - One of the most promising aspects was a study that showed that although there might not be a significant difference between immediately recalling VR experiences (ie. after a 2-min break), after one week there was a 25% difference in favor of VR. This is very appealing for my organization in that so much of training is needed well after the initial training.

The last few months of developing our VR exercises as small snippets rather than what we have found the VR developing community advocates (more large scale and long VR exercises) has been a labor of love that is finally being launched. Seeing that the idea we had has promise in these studies has helped build confidence that we are on the right track. I look forward to the next few months as we gather and begin to analyze data that we gain from this venture.

I'm sure the white paper will make an appearance here soon. But already the VR exercises are becoming a hit in our training areas. 

Chapter 3: Methodology for Proposed VR Study in Experimental Design

The purpose of this study is to examine virtual reality (VR) learning exercises as an addition to a traditional computer-based training (CBT) course in an industrial contractor safety training organization. The Health and Safety Council (HASC) delivers an average of more than 1,500 CBT courses a day to contractors working in the energy industry, primarily focused on safety and skills training. This study is designed to determine if CBT’s could be made more effective in helping learners retain information for longer durations with the addition of VR exercises. 

This study is designed to determine the effectiveness of VR exercises in relation to: (a) the impact on learners' long-term memory development of learning objectives, (b) learner acceptance of VR technology by demographic makeup of the learner and (c) identify effective VR strategies to develop a model of best practices for the learning community that the organization supports. The overarching question that guides this study is how will the use of VR technology influence the long-term memory development and memory resilience among HASC’s learners. 

Research Design and Rationale

This study is designed to follow a quantitative research method using: (a) a CBT course on an aspect of industrial fieldwork, (b) VR exercises, (c) ungraded quizzes to reinforce learning objectives, (d) a survey to capture learner demographic data, and (e) a chatbot style quiz delivered to the learner one week after the completion of the CBT course. 

The data acquired from the student responses to the chatbot-style quiz and survey will be used to gain insight into the impact VR technology has on learner retention of procedures and course information. The research questions that were developed to help guide this study were designed to gain insight into learner retention, learner engagement, and learner motivation. 

Research Questions

Research Question 1: What is the relationship between learner retention of the material in the long term using CBT with VR exercises compared to learners without the opportunity to take VR exercises?

Research Question 2: What is the relationship between learner motivation when using CBT’s with VR exercises?

Research Question 3: What relationships exist among learner retention and motivation in relation to VR exercises?

3a. What relationships exist among learner retention and motivation in relation to learner age?

3b. What relationships exist among learner retention and motivation in relation to learner experience in industry?

3c. What relationships exist among learner retention and motivation in relation to learner gender?

3d. What relationships exist among learner retention and motivation in relation to learner level of education?

3e. What relationships exist among learner retention and motivation in relation to learner race or ethnicity?

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis used for this experiment is that learners who take a CBT class with VR exercises will not have higher scores on the chatbot quiz as the learners who take a CBT course without VR exercises. 

Sample Design

The sample population for this study includes contractors from four different industrial service contractors visiting HASC in Pasadena, Texas who are assigned to take either confined space awareness course (19CS) or confined space awareness course with VR exercises (19CSVR) by their contracting organizations. The course codes, 19CS and 19CSVR, are unique to HASC and are used to help identify the courses by the researcher and the contracting organization when learners register for classes. Learners who take 19CS during this time period will be assigned to the control group, while learners who take 19CSVR will be assigned to the experimental group. The courses are the same price and take approximately the same amount of time. Additionally, the courses contain the same material presented in the same manner and style, except for the addition of VR exercises in 19CSVR. 

Because HASC is a contractor training organization, the researchers working on this project had no control over who was assigned to take either course nor in influencing the contracting organization to select or use the two different courses. This registration process helped to influence an experimental design that focused on a random sample from learners who registered for and completed either 19CS or 19CSVR during one month from the selected contractor organizations. 

Usually learners taking either 19CS or 19CSVR come from a variety of different contracting organizations who support a variety of different industrial processes, therefore they could have a variety of different experiences in the procedures trained in 19CS and 19CSVR. Although the learner population for this experiment all will have previous experience with the confined space awareness concepts provided within both 19CS and 19CSVR course, the degree of that experience might differ; from brief conceptual, theoretical understanding, to deep experiential understanding. Some of this variability comes from the type of work the contracting organization focuses on. To limit this possibility, the sample population will consist of learners who take the course in July, 2022 and complete: (a) either 19CS or 19CSVR, (b) the follow up demographic survey, the (c) follow up chatbot exam, and (d) were employed by Evergreen Industrial Services (EIS), CleanHarbors Industrial Service (CleanHarbors), PSC Industrial Cleaning (PSC), or HydroChem Industrial Services, (HydroChem). 

All four of these contracting organization work within the same sector of industrial cleaning. All four contracting organizations work in and around confined spaces, but do not have a sole focus on confined space work as other organizations’ might. Having four contracting organizations as the supply line for learners for the sample will ensure that the sample population isn’t marred by variability of confined space knowledge or expertise that could sway the analysis. All four contracting organizations also subscribe to basic confined space awareness training which will ensure a baseline understanding by the entire sample population. This will ensure at some point in the learners’ past training/work experience, regardless of contracting organization, the learners have taken the exact similar confined space awareness training. 

Experimental Design

In 2020, HASC performed a study that was similar to this one except for two factors (Health and Safety Council, 2020). The first difference between this study and the 2020 study is that HASC did not capture learner demographic information for their 2020 study. Secondly, the learner sample population consisted primarily of self-selected learners. Learners were asked if they wanted to take a VR course or the CBT course. According to Keppel “the assurance that each member of the population has an equally likely chance of being selected for the experiment. If these conditions are met, we will be able to generalize the result of our experiment to the population” (p. 17). This 2022 HASC study is focused on creating a stronger experimental design both by capturing learner’s demographic information and analyzing it, but also by ensuring that the sample population is a true random sample from a group of unique organizations in one sector of the energy industry. 

Both 19CS and 19CSVR courses include industry standard information provided via articulate storyline files with narration, an unscored pre-test to inspire engagement, animations, interactive scenarios, unscored in-course knowledge check quizzes with remediation for incorrect answers, a scored 20 question final exam, and a chatbot style quiz delivered one week after the course completion. All of these assests have been developed by HASC’s eLearning Development team which has over ten years of experience working these subjects and HASC’s learning community. 

The scores in the final exam will not be analyzed as a part of this study. The scores on this chatbot quiz that are delivered seven days after the course completion will be used as a point of quantitative comparison for this study. This will help to focus the analysis on “long-term” memory development in a manner similar to other studies on long-term memory development (Karpicke & Roediger, 2008). The chatbot quiz will be delivered to the learner’s smart phone seven days following the completion of either CBT course. All participants within this study will also provide demographic and contact information via a survey to solicit demographic information. 

As stated previously, both 19CS and 19CSVR include the exact same CBT content delivered the exact same way. However, 19CSVR includes two, 3-5 minutes VR exercises designed to allow the learner the opportunity to practice procedures learned in the CBT course in an immersive virtual world using an HASC VR headset. The VR exercises are developed within the CBT so that they occur near the theoretical information that the exercises support. The learner will not have to leave the testing area or leave the CBT workstation to take the VR exercises. The questions in the demographic survey will consist of the following:

• questions to determine the learner’s motivation, expectations, and satisfaction level with the course

• questions to determine the learner’s age, race, gender, years of experience in the industry, years of experience working with confined spaces, academic achievement level, and technical expertise. 

The 19CS course is approximately 60 minutes in length. The 19CSVR course that includes VR exercises is an additional ten minutes for a total approximate course length of 70 minutes. The chatbot quiz is seven questions and takes less than five minutes to complete. 

Variables

The independent variables for this study are: (a) the confined space awareness CBT course, (b) the VR exercises, and (c) the demographic information of the learners. The dependent variable for this study are the grades from the follow-up chatbot style quiz that the learners took one week following the completion of the course. 

Instrumentation and Procedures

Learners, regardless of condition will use similar computer terminals for delivery of the CBT. HASC has over 800 computer terminals for CBT course delivery. All are similar and proctored by HASC proctors at all times during the delivery of the CBT courses. All subjects regardless of condition will be proctored by HASC’s proctors and will be allowed the opportunity to ask questions regarding delivery of the CBT courses. 

Learners who take 19CSVR will be proctored and assisted in the use of the VR equipment. During the month-long data collection period, proctors will be trained and monitored by the primary researcher to ensure that the information provided to the learner will be the same regardless of which proctor might interact with the learner. HASC proctors are trained to provide oversight, enforce lab rules, and aid learners in the use of the CBT delivery PC and the use of VR equipment, without giving benefit to the learner that could change how they might answer questions within the CBT, within the VR exercise or after the course is complete when the learner completes the chatbot quiz. Proctors also help ensure that learners do not benefit from other learners’ information or courses. 

The HASC CBT lab has individual PC workstations that are isolated from neighboring PC workstations by partitions. Learner integrity is monitored by an established and audited “HASC learner verification process” which verifies learner identification against a picture and other biometric data located in the HASC learning management system (LMS). The HASC LMS was developed by HASC and the HASC researchers will have access to all test and course information through this application. The HASC learner verification process includes three standard identification checks and spot checks throughout the learner’s completion of any CBT. The three times throughout the process of completing the course include: (a) at the registration desk when the learner enters HASC's building, (b) when the learner arrives at the CBT workstation, and (c) when the learner completes the CBT. There are also spot checks by proctors throughout the course delivery process where proctors check that the learner and who checked in and started the course is the same learner who takes the course by comparing the learner at the workstation to the picture of the learner in the stored in the LMS. 

The VR exercises that are a part of the 19CSVR course will be administered at the same workstation that the CBTs are taken. Learners in the VR condition will take the VR exercises through an Oculus Quest VR Headset provided by HASC. Demographic surveys will be provided in Articulate storyline after the CBT course is completed regardless of condition. Follow-up chatbot quizzes will be provided via SMS text directly to the learner’s smart phones using an established chatbot technology HASC has used in previous studies.  The chatbot quiz will consist of seven multiple choice questions that are designed to judge learner’s long-term memory resilience of the learning objectives regardless of which condition the learner participated in. 

Learners will give consent to be a part of this study by accepting a consent form at the beginning of the CBT course delivery regardless of the condition. 

Study Measures and Data Collection

The primary measure used for this study will be the chatbot quiz provided one week following the completion of the CBT. The data HASC collects as a part of this study includes both demographic data by way of a learner completed survey delivered via the HASC LMS, and a chatbot quiz delivered via a third-party vendor, MobileCaoch. Learners will also provide consent to use their smart phones for delivery of the chatbot quiz through the use of that same consent form. Learners telephone numbers will be gathered through the use of the demographic survey form. No fields in the demographic survey will be optional. HASC’s researchers have access to all of the data that learners provide via the MobileCoach chatbot test through a secure MobileCoach table that can be accessed via password. 

Ethical Considerations

Data collection will not begin until the study is approved by the executive leadership team of HASC. No data collected from this study or from any of the surveys will be disclosed to the public nor to the contracting organizations that the participants work for. Learners names will not be used during the collection, only the demographic data, phone numbers, and chatbot quiz scores will be used during data analysis. 

Data Analysis

Upon acquiring data from this study and the study participants, various measures will be used to address the research questions and identify areas that will help provide insight to help answer the research questions. Data from both the survey and the quiz will be imported into SPSS software to analyze and address the research questions. The unique identifier that will be used to analyze the data will be the learner’s phone number. A between subjects factorial design will be employed to help analyze the data. The data will be imported into SPSS and the analysis will include the following:

• descriptive statistics

• Levene’s test of equality of error

• test of between-subjects effects

• estimated marginal means test (without more like video, this may not be necessary)

• Bonferroni comparison (without more like video, this may not be necessary)

The analysis also will also include a summary of demographic and descriptive statistics such as: (a) the mean score on the chatbot quiz, (b) standard deviation, and (c) ranges. To complete this analysis we will use a factorial ANOVA that focuses on comparing the mean score of learners who took 19CS and the mean score of learners who took 19CSVR. Focusing on these two factors will help HASC reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis. Using a factorial ANOVA will allow HASC to determine if demographic characteristics might significantly interact with the learners score on either course.

Limitations of the Research Design

In this study the limitations include the registration process from the contracting organizations. Although HASC has limited the sample providing organizations all work within the industrial services industries, there could be slightly different specialties and different company specific training standards. These different company specific training standards could provide a greater degree of baseline knowledge to the learners in the sample population. Additionally, some of these organizations may have employees who work with and around confined spaces more often than others. 

Expected Findings

HASC expects that this proposed study will yield results similar to the 2020 study that compared results from a fire watch CBT to the results from a fire watch CBT with VR exercises which showed almost 10% better recall by the VR condition (Health and Safety Council, 2020; Krokos, et al., 2019). The studies are modeled in a similar manual. The opportunity that this proposed study provides is to determine if the results found in the 2020 study, which relied on self-selection, are found in a study with a stronger experimental design that enforces a random sample population. Additionally, the opportunity that this study provides is the chance to determine if there are any additional interactions between the main effect of long-term memory development with any demographic information provided by the sample population. HASC expects that there will be a significant interaction between "technical experience" and "years of experience" and long-term memory development shown by the learners' grades on the follow-up, chatbot style quiz. HASC expects this interaction effect due to the ubiquity of the material being covered, and the expertise of those learners with greater technical experience and years of experience in the industry. 

Ethical Issues

There was no possibility for financial gain for either HASC or the contractors who took part in sending their employees to HASC for training. The learners who took 19CSVR are expected to show better results in long-term memory development after taking the follow-up, chatbot style quiz, but whether taking 19CS or 19CSVR the learner will be fulfilling the compliance and regulatory training demands necessary for safework in the field as mandated by their contracting organization, the refinery site, and federal work safety standards.  The researcher and HASC do not have a personal or professional relationship with any potential study participants in the study. The researcher did not have a personal relationship with the authors of the survey instrument used for this study. HASC hopes that the data from this study will reveal practical implications for engaging learners by applying constructivist theory to the instructional design for 3D VR exercises and spaced practice quizzing. 

For validity of research, the adherence to ethical protocols is an important consideration. Prior to the data collection phase for the purpose of this study, Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained from Kansas State University and the research institution. This step will be taken to ensure participant confidentiality and ethical procedures are reviewed for the protection and storage of data collected for use in this study. All participants in this study will receive informed consent forms prior to their survey participation as a part of the course. The informed consent form will state:

1. purpose and description of the study;

2. participant expectations and participation requirements of the study;

3. participant rights, risks, benefits, confidentiality protection; and

4. participant option to leave the study at any time.

Participants were provided details of the precautions implemented to protect their confidentiality during and after the study. Participants were not asked nor provided a means to give information that would identify them except for providing a phone number which will not be linked to their name. Participants electronically signed the consent form prior to participating in the survey collection of data.

Summary

This chapter described the research design and methodology implemented for this proposed HASC VR study. An overview was provided describing an overview of the technology used in this research as well as the setting of the study, participants, data collection tools, data collection process, and data analysis. There was also a section on the limitations of the study as well as information regarding ethical considerations concerning this study and how they were addressed.

References

Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L., 3rd. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science (New York, N.Y.), 319(5865), 966–968. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1152408

Health and Safety Council. (2020). Gauging effectiveness of 3D VR for memory retrieval. Retrieved October 10, 2021, from https://hasc.com/uploads/digital/VR/HASC-VR-in-Industry-White-Paper.pdf

Keppel, G. (1991). Design and analysis: A researcher’s handbook (3rd ed.). Pearson.

Krokos, E., Plaisant, C., & Varshney, A. (2019). Virtual memory palaces: immersion aids recall. Virtual Reality, 23(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-018-0346-3

Apply Dewey’s Concept of Experiential Learning to VR Courses

Lamoreaux and Taylor (2011) write that “…the crucial role of experience in learning is often traced to Dewey (1938) who held that all genuine education comes through experience” (Hoare, 2011, p. 84). In my work with virtual reality (VR) at HASC, a non-profit contractor safety, and skills training organization, experiential learning makes up a significant factor in the learner’s experience. The authors continue by discussing how Kolb believes that experience becomes knowledge through reflection (Hoare, 2011). 

Then several passages later the authors break down, using examples of what learners should ask of themselves to progress through Kolb’s cycle of a) concrete experience, b) reflective observation, c) abstract conceptualization, and d) active experimentation (Hoare, 2011). 

VR use as a medium for experiential learning and to involve learners in the cyclic process described by Kolb is not unique or new (Sankaranarayanan et al., 2018), but by applying more reflection and further experimentation, there is the possibility to make VR learning more effective for the learners that HASC serves.

HASC has been working for several years to find ways to make VR courses more impactful for our adult learners. Allowing the learner to experience the course in a safe environment is just one benefit of VR. The benefits of hands-on instruction over traditional computer-based training (CBT) and traditional lecture can be found in numerous studies (Daniels, 2006; Palis & Quiros, 2014; O. Ekwueme, et al, 2015). VR courses allow the learner to experience many of the benefits of hands-on instruction but, also allow for the application of procedures in an immersive environment, which can be programmed to display dangerous scenarios, in a safe, yet realistic setting (Sankaranarayanan et al., 2018). 

In 2020, HASC published a white paper describing a study of a VR course that included over 1800 participants. This study demonstrated that CBT courses augmented with VR exercises improved long-term memory recall for the participants (Health and Safety Council, 2020). By following Kolb’s experiential learning cycle more thoroughly there is the potential of helping learners improve that long-term memory recall beyond the approximately 10% that HASC found in the previous study. 

Lamoreaux and Taylor (2011) also discuss Brookfield’s view on experiences by citing; “Brookfield (1998) echoes that experiences don’t happen to us, events happen to us, in his view, mere sense data is not in itself an experience. It becomes an experience when we attend to it or according to Kolb (1984) reflect on it” (Hoare, 2011, p. 84). 

The task would be for HASC to find a way that allows learners to not just experience the VR exercise, and actively experiment with the procedure within the virtual world, but to complete all of the steps of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and allow learners to reflect on the observation and conceptualize abstractly. When providing examples of this observation and abstract conceptualizing, Lamoreaux and Taylor write about reflection with: “Why did I do it (that way)? What did I see, (notice, feel) and why? Does it always happen this way?” (Hoare, 2011, p. 92). About abstract conceptualization they write these questions the learners should ask of themselves: “What might explain different behavior or feelings? . . . Are there other explanations or perspectives?” (Hoare, 2011, p. 84). These are questions that HASC should be compelling our learners to ask, rather than simply ushering them through an experience within a virtual world.

Miettinen (2000) provides a visual representation of John Dewey’s concept of experiential learning according to Kolb on page 64 which has been reproduced in Figure 1 below. This diagram shows how adult learners absorb, process, reflect on, and reassess information with the end goal of moving from impulse to purpose. Miettenen (2000) also discusses how Tom Burke, a student of Dewey’s summarized this cycle of understanding and learning. This passage has been reproduced as an illustration in Figure 2. Taking both of these as models and applying HASC’s VR course, there could be an opportunity for making HASC’s VR courses more effective through re-evaluation, reflection,as shown in Figure 3.  

Figure 1

Reproduction of Mittenen (2000) John Dewey’s Concept of Experiential Learning According to Kolb (p. 64) 

 

Figure 2

Illustration of Tom Burke’s description of John Dewey’s Concept of Experiential Learning from Mittenen (2000, p. 64)

Figure 3

Illustration of HASC’s VR Course Development Model with Dewey’s Experiential Learning Concept

 

At this point, HASC uses a cycle of the type shown in the figures once. This single cycle does not allow the learner to re-evaluate or reformulate their previous hypotheses, nor reflect and reconsider. Although there are reasons that having further cycles of understanding might be difficult to implement, the chance of utilizing Kolb’s experiential learning cycle and Dewey’s concept of experiential learning would greatly benefit the understanding of HASC’s learners. Finding opportunities to help HASC learners through the entirety of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, provides the learner a better chance of developing more resilient, long-term memories and might allow HASC learners a better chance of using the procedures from this learning in the field environment. 

 

References

Daniels, N. (2006). The effectiveness of hands-on activities compared to paper and pencil activities when teaching reading to first through fifth grade students. Old Dominion University.

Health and Safety Council. (2020). Gauging Effectiveness of 3D VR for Memory Retrieval. Retrieved October 10, 2021, from https://drive.google.com/file/d/1jvogEWVVL7BLQSZ08bab9S1RGS-llAwN/view?usp=sharing

Hoare, Carolyn (Ed.) (2011) The oxford handbook of reciprocal adult development and learning. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 978-0199736300

Miettinen, R. (2000) The concept of experiential learning and John Dewey's theory of reflective thought and action, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 19:1, 54-72, DOI: 10.1080/026013700293458

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Improving Learner Self-Efficacy Through Virtual Reality

Virtual Reality (VR) is quickly gaining momentum as a possible tool for safety training and skills training in the energy sector at the Health and Safety Council (HASC). As a non-profit contractor training organization, HASC has been studying ways to integrate VR training into its delivery models in ways that help provide more effective learning outcomes for the learner. 

To determine if VR is effective as a training tool for the contractors and trainees who come to HASC for safety or skills training and whether VR is effective compared to traditional eLearning or Computer Based Training (CBT) tools, HASC has completed several investigations. HASC's studies have shown that VR effectively creates lasting, retrievable memories for HASC's trainees (Health and Safety Council, 2020). In addition, being exposed to theories, learning procedures, and understanding information are aspects that CBT at HASC can benefit their learners. VR offers the opportunity to practice and try the procedures in an immersive, virtual world. However, finding ways to improve worker self-efficacy could have deeper, more meaningful effects on the learner and their teams. 

Stop-Work Authority

The understanding and use of personal stop work authority is ubiquitous and fundamental to safe work activities in the energy sector (Gaddis, 2019; Mlynek, 2021). Providing training that helps learners, particularly newer workers, understand stop-work authority and how to use it effectively and promptly. The proper use of stop-work authority by workers can also create a safer work environment for all workers on the job site. Stop work authority is a safety policy designed to keep workers personally safe and allow them to stop any work they may see that is unsafe. According to Gaddis (2019), "the goal behind such a plan is to encourage workers to speak up without fear of retribution when they see a potential at-risk situation unfolding" (p. 2). When used correctly, stop work authority is a powerful tool for keeping workers safe. When it is not used, it can place employees, worksites, and communities surrounding energy manufacturing facilities at risk of dangerous releases, explosions, or fires. 

In many cases, new workers are hesitant to use their stop-work authority due to factors such as diffusion of responsibility; or a "situation in which a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction, when other workers are present" (Mlynek, 2021, p. 1). Counting on others rather than being assured of your own knowledge, training, and capabilities could lead to injury or fatality for the field workers and contracting organizations' that HASC supports. 

Another issue with new employees feeling empowered to use their authority to stop work is the bystander effect. According to Furst (2015), the bystander effect "occurs when the presence of others hinders an individual from intervening in a situation that may cause injury to others or the environment" (p. 5). Like the diffusion of responsibility, the bystander effect can affect new employees inserted into work teams with other, more experienced workers. Being the newest employee can influence a greater chance for the bystander effect to occur. Even if they see something dangerous, new employees might be less apt to stop work because they believe another, more experienced member would stop the hazardous act if it were dangerous. Conversely, experienced workers can get complacent and bad habits can cause them to miss procedural steps. When newer employees rely on these experienced workers due to the bystander effect, stop-work authority will not be used effectively. 

Self-Efficacy

For HASC learners, self-efficacy can be described as a learner's belief in the abilities and capabilities for a task or procedure and their perceptions of themselves in society (Bandura, 1977). Having higher regard for their capabilities and understanding can lead to greater self-efficacy and a greater sense of independent agency, the chance to make independent changes. As Lindley (2006) points out, Bandura believes that "self-efficacy is closely linked to individual human agency" (p. 144). These have positive benefits as providing learners with greater self-efficacy and agency will be more confident in their decisions. In terms of stop-work authority, having the confidence to speak up and stop a job, especially as a newer technician, is a hard challenge. Having greater agency, self-efficacy, and confidence can help newer workers potentially overcome those challenges sooner in their career development. 

Citing several sources, Artisco et al. state in Hoare (2011) that self-efficacy and self-worth are linked to one's abilities. Citing Ehrlinger and Dunning, Artistico, Berry, Black, Cervone, Lee and Orom write that "the knowledge that one is succeeding or failing at a task has substantial implication for ongoing and future actions related to task performance and sense of mastery” (Hoare, 2011, p. 217). Developing skills and feeling that they can meet future challenges successfully is the essence of self-efficacy and can impact learners' future success. 

Virtual Reality and Self-Efficacy

Many studies show how VR training can improve worker self-efficacy for industrial workers (Colombo, 2014; Makransky & Klingenberg, 2022). These studies have shown that workers who took VR training were more apt to identify and fix problems they found on the worksite and showed higher levels of motivation and behavioral changes. Bandura (1977) suggests that self-efficacy comes from four primary sources; of those four, two are: (a) personal performance and accomplishments, (b) vicarious experiences. The VR exercises that HASC provides allows learners to perform procedures in a safe and controlled environment. Learners have the opportunity to perform procedures and experience the results of that work in an immersive environment. 

An immersive VR environment also allows learners to practice these procedures in significantly more dangerous situations than what could be provided in live training simulators. Holbrook and Cennamon (2014), citing several studies, write that one beneficial aspect of simulators is that "they provide a safe environment in which to learn and fail" (p. 40). Their study on emotion and self-efficacy in simulators for police officers found that learners in an immersive learning environment were: (a) more emotionally invested, (b) found the training situations realistic, and (c) found the learning memorable and realistic. In a similar study, Nissim and Weissblueth (2017) found that when providing VR simulator training to teachers,  the participants' self-efficacy or belief in their ability improved following the simulator training. Additionally, Shu et al. (2017) found that learner motivation and enjoyment of the training course improved when using high definition immersive VR as the tool for delivery. 

Career Development

A greater sense of self-efficacy can also have positive benefits for the learner's career and the learner's fulfillment from their career. Bandura (1997) writes that the "stronger the sense of self-regulatory efficacy, the greater the improvement in work involvement" (p. 189). This can not only lead to greater worker involvement but can have positive benefits to the worker in the form of being more involved to use stop-work authority more effectively. Additionally, this willingness to "own" their own and others' safety at the job site can lead to quicker career growth and promotion. Holbrook and Cennamo (2014) write about how individuals with "high perceived self-efficacy about a certain task can lead to positive performance outcomes" (p. 38). And Bandura (1997) writes that "individuals who have a resilient sense of self-efficacy perceive greater employment opportunities and are more successful in finding employment" (p. 188). Finally, Bandura (1986) quotes Brown and Inouye that "when people are fully assured of their capabilities, they remain unshaken in their perceived self-efficacy and persevere doggedly, even though they fail repeatedly" (p. 364).

Multiple studies show that self-efficacy can be improved for students through the use of VR exercises (Colombo et al, 2014; Holbrook & Cennamo, 2014; Makransky & Klingenberg, 2022; Nissim & Weissblueth, 2017). Improved self-efficacy, or a greater sense of self-efficacy in a shorter time can help field workers supporting the energy sector perform their work more safely and speak up quicker and use their stop work authority when they see something dangerous (Burke, et al., 2006; Furst, 2015; Gaddis, 2019; Mlynek, 2021). For an organization like HASC that is looking for ways to improve contractor safety in the energy sector, finding training techniques that can help learners quickly gain a sense of self-efficacy, VR could be a worthwhile investment. 

References

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Furst, P. G. (2015). Stop work authority and the bystander effect. IRMI. Retrieved April 22, 2022, from https://www.irmi.com/articles/expert-commentary/stop-work-authority-and-the-bystander-effect

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Health and Safety Council. (2020). Gauging Effectiveness of 3D VR for Memory Retrieval. Retrieved October 10, 2021, from https://hasc.com/uploads/digital/VR/HASC-VR-in-Industry-White-Paper.pdf

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